
MP 




m 

o 

K5 



Wmm 



^ 
«?k 




^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



PP\U\ 

Shelf ,W^5(> 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 



SOME TOPICS 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



For the PUPIL, 



The TEACHER, and 



The GENERAL READER. 



EDITED BY 

ARTHUR HINDS, 



LATELY TEACHER OF GRAMMAR IN THE WESTFIELD, MASS., STATE 
NORMAL SCHOOL. 







B K 



No.././... 



% 



NEW YORK: 

BAKER & GODWIN, PRINTERS, 

No. 25 Park Row. 

1881. 



• 






Copyright, 1881, 
By Arthur Hinds. 



PREFACE. 



About twenty years ago the instructor in grammar 
in the Westfield, Mass., State Normal School attempted 
to teach a class of teacher-pupils the principles of 
English grammar as inculcated in " the text-books.*' 
The attempt was not successful and was never re- 
newed. The least to be said is that " the text-books " 
are unsatisfactory to intelligent pupils. 

The teacher mentioned found himself driven by 
necessity to devise a system and to construct defini- 
tions acceptable to a class of conscientious pupils of 
ordinary intelligence. The statements of principles 
and the arrangement of the topics herein presented are 
in their essential features the product of his endeavor, 
and issue from the test of twenty years of discussion 
by the members of the Westfield Normal School. 

Teachers are almost unanimous in condemning the 
grammars as untruthful, or inconsistent, or complicat- 
ed, or as combining these faults. Many English gram- 
mars are untruthful, because they ascribe to the En- 
glish language characteristics belonging to the Latin, 
and the Greek, and the Anglo-Saxon, but which our 
language either has never possessed or has cast off. 
The inconsistency of some grammars is owing in part 
to this untruthfulness and in part to the great diffi- 
culty of framing definitions capable of surviving the 

[3] 



4 PREFACE. 

test of application. The division of words into classes 
should be made upon some uniform and trustworthy 
basis. But grammarians have failed to perceive this, 
and hence inconsistency has been inevitable. 

Some grammars are complicated because they in- 
termix "language lessons " with grammar. Gram- 
mar, like zoology, and geology, and chemistry, is, as 
a science, but a record in a convenient, classified 
form, of facts. A knowledge of grammar does not 
insure correct speech. Many a child uses correct 
language who has never studied grammar, or, perhaps, 
has never even heard of it; many a teacher is faulty 
in speech who is thoroughly versed in grammar. To 
teach correct habits of speech would seem, then, to 
be not the province of grammar; it is the province of 
"language lessons." And " language lessons " should 
form a part of all the child's training, both at school 
and at home. 

The following are the distinctive features of this 
work: 

The presentation of the subject is natural. Every 
principle is illustrated before it is stated. The student 
is thus led, first, to recognize the principle, and after- 
wards, to give it formal expression. As a result his 
attention is directed beyond the text-book and its 
formal statements, and is fixed upon the English lan- 
guage and its principles. He is lead to think. The 
book only guides. 

Traditions have been disregarded. The work is 
based on the English language. The aim has been to 
record the facts, and to avoid ascribing to our Ian- 



PREFACE. 5 

guage characteristics that it does not possess. To se- 
cure consistency, the classifications and the definitions 
have been rested upon uniform and well-tested bases. 

To make the work concise it was necessary to 
narrow the field. There has been no attempt to make 
the book "complete." It is of little importance to 
the average pupil how much the learned know about 
language. But it is of first importance how much time 
he shall be made to spend in the study of grammar 
and how well that time shall be spent. Recognizing 
this fact, the editor has not hesitated to omit much 
that heretofore has been deemed essential, but which is 
really cumbersome in a text-book; and, in his determin- 
ation to consider the little time pupils have at their dis- 
posal, and the comparative unimportance of a wide 
knowledge of technical grammar, he has attempted to 
select from the great mass of material only those facts 
of which one can least afford to be ignorant. If the 
book does not contain all that a teacher could wish 
her pupils might know, the omissions have been made 
deliberately and for the pupils' sake, with the purpose 
of furnishing a book that they can use. It is with 
this purpose that the book has been divided into 
Topics and Helps: the one containing only the bare 
subject matter, presented in a simple and straight- 
forward manner, without comment and without su- 
perfluous illustration; while the other contains all that 
seems necessary of explanation and illustration. 

The editor wishes to disclaim any intention of 
promulgating a creed of English grammar. His de- 
voted wish has been to present the truth and to 



6 PREFACE. 

furnish a trustworthy guide to the grammatical study 
of his mother tongue. Should there be any hesitation 
to accept the principles herein stated, he begs leave to 
be excused from resting his case upon any one's doc- 
trine, but to be permitted to appeal to the English 
language of to-day. 

In preparing this little book the only part of the 
work that was a task was the determining what not to 
omit. All teachers are agreed that a hand-book 
should be brief ; but all are not agreed upon what 
are essentials and what are not. However, there has 
been no hesitation in excluding foreign matter, such 
as belongs to the province of rhetoric and etymology. 
So with the many subdivisions of the classes of words. 
It will be seen that the work is not a course of " lan- 
guage lessons." 

The editor desires criticism upon his system, and 
most cordially invites suggestions concerning his ma- 
terial. 

My thanks are due to Mr. J. G. Scott, to whose 
instructions I owe my acquaintance with this, his 
system of grammar, and whose counsel has been of 
great value to me in the preparation of these topics. 

A. H., EDITOR. 
Hempstead, L. L, N. Y. 

Aug. 1881. 



PLAN. 



[For full Index to Pages see the end of the Book.] 

TOPICS. 

Grammar, def. (= defined.) 
English Grammar, def. 

Propositions, parts. 
Subject, def. 
Predicate, def. 

Attribute, def. 
Copula, def. 

Proposition, def. 

Classes of Words, general divisions. 
Nouns, def. 
Pronouns, def. 
Adjectives, def. 

(To limit, def.) 
Verbs, def. 

(Object of a Verb, def.) 
Adverbs, def. 
Prepositions, def. 

(Object of a Preposition, def.) 
Conjunctions, def. 
Participles, def. 
Infinitives, def. 

Propositions, kinds. 
Declarative. 
Imperative. 
Interrogative. 
Simple. 
Compound. 
Complex. 

Clauses. 
(Phrases.) 

Uses. 

Pi 



8 PLAN. 

Classes of Words, separately studied. 
Nouns : Some kinds. 
Properties. 

Numbers, def. 
Genders, def. 
Cases, def. 

Rules. 

Pronouns : Some kinds. 
Properties. 

Persons, def. 

Genders, Numbers, Cases* 
Rules. 

Adjectives ; Some kinds. 
Properties. 

Comparison. 
Verbs : Some kinds. 
Properties. 

Persons, Numbers, 
Tenses, def. 

Tense phrases. 

Rules. 

Adverbs : Some kinds. 
Comparison. 

Conjunctions : Some kinds. 

Participles : Imperfect. 
Perfect. 

Infinitives'. Root. 

In u ing." 

HELPS. 

Hints, Examples, Illustrations, Lists, 



TOPICS 



1* 



REMARK. 

The Topics contain mainly the bare sub- 
stance of the various subjects in such form 
that the student may readily refer to them 
for the salient facts of grammar. The Helps 
(see p. 73) contain remarks useful to the stu- 
dents who need additional assistance, and to 
teachers who desire hints concerning the pre- 
sentation of the topics. The teacher should 
read both 'parts of this book through before 
using it in class. 



TOPICS. 



DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR, 



THE FIELB OF STUDY LIMITED. 

1, a. Every word is said to express an idea. 

b. Words may be combined in various ways. 
For example, the words horse and black may be 
written liorse black, or JjjJJf,£, or black horse. In the 

first two cases there is not any necessary connection 
of the ideas expressed by horse and black. But in 
the third case, on account of the arrangement of the 
two words, we are led to connect the idea expressed 
by black with the idea expressed by horse. When 
words are combined as black and horse are in the 
third example, they are said to be related. Whence 
it appears that 

C. Words are related when they are so com- 
bined as to lead us to put together the ideas expressed 
by them. 

d. Just as we say that things which are combined 
are in a combined state, we may say of the words 

[Hi 



12 TOPICS. 

Grammar defined. 



black horse, or any other related words, that they are 
in a related state. To such a state we will give the 
name relation; hence, 

e. The relation of words is the state words 
are in when they are related. 

2, a. In the expression, 

h e mended his own coat, 

the word his indicates ownership ; the word he does 
not. His is related to the other words in one way ; 
he is related to them in another way. The two 
words, then, differ in their relations to the expression. 
The same is true of they and their in 

they knew their business, 
b. These illustrations show us that words may be 
used in different relations. 

C. Moreover, he and his, though differently 
spelled, are practically one and the same word. 
They differ in form. This is true of they and their 
also. Hence it appears, too, that a word may have 
different forms. 

d. Now it would not be proper to use his in the 
place of he, in the first expression, and he in the 
place of his, saying, 

his mended he own coat. 
Nor would it be proper to say 

their knew they business. 
In short, we may not use different forms of words in- 
discriminately in different relations. 



TOPICS. 13 

Grammar defined. 



e. Words, then, may be used in different rela- 
tions, and for various relations various forms may be 
used, but not promiscuously. In studying language 
we may gain a knowledge of the relations of words 
and of the forms words take in their various relations. 
Such knowledge we will call grammar. Therefore, 

f. Grammar is a knowledge of the relations of 
words and of the forms words take in their various 
relations. 

g. English grammar is a knowledge of the 
relations of words in the English language and of 
the forms the words take in their various relations. 

(For Remarks on the Definition of Grammar, see p. 77.) 



14 TOPICS. 



PARTS OF PROPOSITIONS. 



DEFINITION OF THE PROPOSITION. 

3, a. By means of the expression 
snow is melting 

something is said of the substance snow. The sub- 
stance snow, then, is that of which something is said. 
The word snow is a part of the whole expression ; 
it is used to represent the substance snow, that is, 
to represent that of which something is said. Such 
a part is called the subject of an expression, there- 
fore, 

b- The Subject of an expression is that part of 
the expression which is used to represent that of 
which something is said. 

C. We may say 

the snow is melting, or 

the exposed snow is melting, or 

the slowly falling snow is melting. 

In these examples the snow, and the exposed suow, and 
the slowly falling snow, are all parts representing that of 
which something is said. Hence it will be seen that the 
subject of an expression may be not one word only, but 
may comprise a number of words. 

d. But in each of these examples the word snow 
is the only single word in the subject which may be 
used alone as the subject of the expression. Such a 



TOPICS. 15 

Divisions of the proposition. 

single word, when it is one of a number of words 
forming a subject, is called the bare subject. 

e. The several words, including the bare subject, 
which together form the whole subject, are called the 

COMPLETE SUBJECT. 

In using the term subject we shall designate the bare sub- 
ject, except when the context clearly indicates the other mean- 
ing. 

4, a. Again, in 

snow is melting, 
is melting is a part by means of which something is 

said concerning the substance snow, that is, concern- 
ing that which is represented by the subject. Such 
a part of an expression is called the predicate ; 
hence, 

b. The Predicate of an expression is that part 
of the expression by means of which something is 
said of that represented by the subject. 

C. Predicates, also, may be BARE PREDICATES and 
complete predicates ; bare and complete applied to 
predicates having a signification similar to that of bare and 
complete applied to subjects. 

5, a. Referring to the preceding example, the word 
melting is a part of the predicate which indicates a 
condition of the substance snow, that is, a condition 
of that represented by the subject. In the expression 

snow is white, 
white is a part of the predicate which indicates a 



1 6 TOPICS. 

Divisions of the proposition. 

quality of that represented by the subject. Such a 
part of an expression, as either melting or white, is 
called an attribute ; therefore, 

b. The Attribute of an expression is that part 
of the predicate which is used to indicate a condition 
or a quality of that represented by the subject. 

Attributes, also, may be bare or complete. 

If the definitions of a predicate and an attribute are rightly 
interpreted, it will be understood that a predicate asserts, while 
an attribute merely indicates. 

6, a. In both 

snow i s melting, and 
snow is white, 

is is used to connect the subject and the attribute, 

and is a part of the predicate. Such a part is called 
the copula ; consequently, 

b- The Copula of an expression is that part of 
the predicate which is used to connect the subject 
and the attribute. 

Observe that the definition does not say that a copula does not 
assert. The copula is the assertive element in predicates com- 
posed of a copula and an attribute. 

C. In the examples above, the copula is composed 
of a single word. Let the expressions, 

the snow has been melting, and 

the snow will have been melting, and 

the snow is just about to be melted, 

illustrate the fact that a copula may be composed of 
two or more words. 



TOPICS. 1 7 

Divisions of the proposition. 

7, a. Snow is melting, 

the snow falls, 

the wind has begun to blow violently, and 
the beautiful evening star is sinking toward 
the western horizon, 

are all expressions combining a subject and a predi- 
cate. Such a combination is called a proposition ; 
therefore, 

b. A Proposition is a combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It follows that an expression which lacks either a subject or a 
predicate is not a proposition. 

C. There are various kinds and uses of propositions, the 
description of some of which involves the use of terms we 
have not yet defined. The subject will be treated farther 
on (see p. 29). 

See p. 84 concerning the basis of the divisions of the proposi- 
tion. 

8. The expression, 

he can write as well as I, 
contains one complete proposition, he can write. 

But the expression is clearly intended to convey the 
idea that the person represented by I, also, can write, 
although I can write is not said in so many words. 
To completely express the sense of the statement it 
would be necessary to add the words can write. 
Any part which, though not actually employed, yet 
really belongs to a statement, is said to be under- 
stood. It is always permissible in explaining an ex- 
pression, to insert any understood part or parts. In- 
deed, it is not only permissible but necessary. 



1 8 TOPICS. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 



9, Remark. — The combination of letters chip, employed in 
«one connection, may mean a bit of substance, say wood or mar- 
ble, obtained in a certain way. The same combination of let- 
ters, chip, employed in another connection, may mean a certain 
act combining breaking and splitting. Used in the one way 
chip will be one word; used in the other way it will be a differ- 
ent word from the first. In the one case it will belong to a cer- 
tain class of words ; in the other case it will belong to an entire- 
ly different class. The same in effect is true of many other 
"words, numerous illustrations of which will present themselves 
to the student of grammar. It is a principle which should be 
b>orne distinctly and constantly in mind, that, in classifying words, 
dependence must not be placed upon spelling, solely, as a means 
of distinguishing different words. In what ways the necessary 
distinctions can be safely made will appear in the topics fol- 
lowing. (For Exercises on the several classes of words turn to 
the corresponding sections in Helps. ) 



THE CLASSES OF WORDS DEFINED. 

10, a. Anything of which we may think is called 

an OBJECT OF THOUGHT. 

b. In the expression, 

the child is father to the man, 
child names an object of thought and is used as the 
subject of a proposition. Any word that names an 
object of thought, and that may be used as a subject, 
is a noun; therefore, 



TOPICS. 19 

The classes of words defined. 



C. A Noun is a word which names an object of 
thought, and which may be used as the subject of a 
proposition. 

So with father and man, above ; each names an object 
of thought, and each may be used as the subject of a 
proposition. Father and man are therefore nouns. 

d. It is not enough in denning a noun to say a 
noun is a name. For every word may be said to be 
the name of an idea. But not every word is a noun. 

e. There is one exception to every definition of a 
class of words, viz., a word employed as the name of 
itself, as when we say, 

" t r u 1 y " is an adverb. 

Any word so used becomes a noun. 

There is a distinction between may be used and is used which 
the student should carefully note. (See p. 20, e.) 

11, a. The word h i s , in 

the emperor has met his fate, 

is not a noun, but is used in the stead of emperor, 
which is a noun. It is a pronoun; hence, 

b. A Pronoun is a word, not a noun, used in- 
stead of a noun. 

12, a. The word soldiers, when used alone, in- 
cludes in its application all soldiers. But, by using 
the word valiant with the word soldiers, the applica- 
tion of soldiers is made more definite and we are led 
to apply it to only those soldiers who are valiant. 



20 TOPICS. 

The classes of words defined. 



When one word is so used with another word, it is 
said to limit or restrict that other word; therefore, 

b. A word limits or restricts another word 
when it is so used with that other word as to lead us 
to make a more definite application of it. 

C. The y a 1 i a n t soldiers rushed into the jaws of 
death. 

Here yaliant is neither a noun nor a pronoun; it is 
placed directly before a noun, soldiers* and it is used 
to limit that noun. Any word of which these things 
are true, and which may be so used, is an adjective; 
from which it follows that 

d. An AdjectivG is a word, neither noun nor 
pronoun, which may be placed directly before a 
noun to limit it. 

The word else, generally considered an adjective, is an excep- 
tion to this definition. It cannot properly be placed directly be- 
fore a noun to limit it. 

e. In 

the grain fields were green hut became golden, 

green and golden are neither nouns nor pronouns. 
They are adjectives although they are not placed di- 
rectly before a noun to limit it; but they may be so 
placed and therein lies the distinction. 

f. In the expressions, 

he was a man of means, and 

to be thought honest is creditable, 

a man of means, in the one case, limits he, in the 



TOPICS. 21 

The classes of words defined* 



other, to be thought honest, is limited by creditable* 

We learn, then, that not only may one word limit an- 
other word, but several words may together limit or 
be limited as if they were a single word. (See p. 34.) 

13, a- Many gases burn, 

some gases are dense. 

Burn, in the first example is used as a predicate ; are, 
in the second, as a copula. A word which may be 
made either a predicate or a copula is called a verb ; 
hence, 

b. A Verb is a word which may be used as the 
predicate or the copula of a proposition. 

Remark. — Bear in mind that the definition does not 
say that a verb is a group of words, but that a verb is 
a word. In the expressions 

the flower looks wilted, 
the flower seems wilted, 
the flower became wilted, 

looks, seems, and became, are verbs. But looks 
wilted, taken together, dd not constitute a verb. Nor 
are seems wilted and became wilted verbs. So, like- 
wise, is wilted and has wilted are not verbs in 

the flower is wilted, 
the flower has wilted. 

Is and has are the verbs ; wilted belongs, to another 

class of words (see p. 68, a, b). So, again, in 

I will have been gone two hours, 

Will is the verb ; have, been, and gone belong to other 



2 2 TOPICS. 

The classes of words defined. 



classes. Concerning the treatment of verb phrases, 
see p. 117. 

C. If we say • 

John struck James* 

we represent John as acting and James as acted upon. 
That which acts we call the subject of an action. 
That which is acted upon is the object of an ac- 
tion. In the above expression the word struck ex- 
presses the action of which James is said to be the 
object, and it is a verb ; the word James represents 
the object of the action expressed by that verb, and 
is a part of the predicate. Such a part of a predi- 
cate is called the object of a verb ; therefore, 

d. The Object of a verb is that part of the 
predicate of a proposition which represents the ob- 
ject of the action expressed by the verb. 

Like a subject, an objecf is not necessarily one word. 

e. According to the definition of an object of a 
verb, a verb, to have an object, must express action. 
But in the expressions, 

Troy was, 

the king sat upon his throne, 

the mother mourned, 

the verb was does not express action ; the verb sat 
does express action, but does not take an object, 
— indeed, this verb rarely takes an object ; and 
mourned expresses action without taking an object, 



TOPICS. 23 

The classes of words defined. 



though the verb mourned is used with an object quite 
as often as without. 

f. Some verbs, then, do not take objects. Some 
verbs expressing action do not take objects. And 
some verbs expressing action take objects, but may 
be used without. 

Verbs which may take an object, are often called 
transitive verbs ; and those which may not, in- 
transitive verbs. But it is clear, from the exam- 
ples given, that whether a verb be really transitive or 
intransitive depends upon the way in which it is used 
in the given case. It will be sufficient to our purpose 
to say, when the occasion arises, that a verb is used 
transitively or intransitively, as the case may 
be. 

14, a. The night was very dark, 

the maid does her work quickly. 

Very* in the first example, is used to limit dark, an 
adjective ; quickly, in the second, limits does, a verb ; 
work, likewise, limits the verb, but quickly, as a limit- 
ing word, differs from work in not being the object of 
the verb. Any word which may be used as either 
very or quickly is used, is an adverb ; therefore, 

b. An Adverb is a word which may be used to 
limit an adjective, or to limit a verb without being 
the object of the verb. 

C. He was almost dead, 

I almost fell, 
my task is almost finished, 



24 TOPICS. 

The classes of words defined. 



to almost succeed is not enough, 

she performed her part almost perfectly, 

the sun is almost over our heads. 

In neither of the last four of these examples does 
almost limit either a verb or an adjective. But by 
consulting the first two examples it will be seen that 
this word almost, without change of meaning; may be 
used to limit either an adjective or a verb, without 
being its object. It is consequently an adverb in all 
six cases according to the definition (see p 23). 

d. But this reasoning must not be misapplied. It 
does not follow that because some word spelled so 
and so is a member of a given class, therefore every 
word so spelled is a member of that class. For ex- 
ample, the words form and setting may be a verb and 
an adjective respectively, as in 

the clouds form a curtain to the setting sun 5 

but they are not a verb and an adjective respectively 

in 

as the sun was setting his form appeared to 

change. 

It is quite obvious that form in the first illustration is 
different, not only in its use but also in its meaning 
and application, from form in the second. And the 
first setting differs from the second at least in use 
and application, and also somewhat in meaning. In 
fact, form and setting in the one example are differ- 
ent words from the corresponding words in the other. 
The same, in substance, may be truly said of many 



TOPICS. 25 

The classes of words defined. 



other words spelled alike (see p. 18, 9). These ex- 
amples may serve to emphasize the principle that the 
identity of a word is not fixed by its spelling alone. 

It happens that there is no word spelled almost be- 
longing to a different class from that to which almost 
in the above example belongs. But when we meet 
with such words as form and settings we should deter- 
mine their meaning, and especially should ascertain 
what are their characteristic relations in propositions. 
We can then easily assign them to their respective 
classes. 

15, a. The word to in 

the meteorite fell to the earthy 

is used to connect the words fell and earth, and is 
not a copula. It is a preposition: 

b. A Preposition is a word, not a copula, used 
to connect words. 

C. Of the two words connected by the preposition, 
the word earth is the one which follows it. In 

that point I will reach beyond, 
beyond is a preposition connecting reach and point, 
and point is that one of the two words connected, that 
would follow the preposition if the words were ar- 
ranged in their natural order. Earth and point are 
the objects of the preposition. Hence the defini- 
tion: 

d. The Object of a preposition is that one of 
the two words connected which follows the preposi- 

2 



26 TOPICS. 

The classes of words defined. 



tion when the words are written in a natural or- 
der. 

16, a. In the expression 

spring came and the snows disappeared, 
spring came is one proposition, and the snows disap- 
peared is a second. The word and is used to connect 
the two propositions. In 

spring came when the snows had disappeared, 
there are two propositions connected by when. As a 
connective, and differs from when in not being a part 
of either of the propositions connected ; while when, 
in limiting both came and disappeared, is actually a 
part of both the propositions it connects. Such a 
word as and is a conjunction : 

b- A Conjunction is a word used to connect two 
propositions without forming a part of either. 

C. The word when, used above, is plainly an adverb. 
In its capacity of a connective it is called a conjunctive 
adverb. (See pp. 23 and 67.) 

d. A comparison of the uses of prepositions and 
conjunctions will show that while prepositions con- 
nect words as such, conjunctions, though they may 
be said to connect words, do not connect them as 
such, but only as they represent propositions. For 
example, 

Mary and Thomas played 
is a short way of saying 

Mary played and Thomas played, 



TOPICS. 27 

The classes of words defined. 



two propositions connected by and. Again, 

apples are as good as pears 
is a way of saying 

pears are good ; apples are as good. 

17? a- In the proposition 

my watch is losing time, 
the word losing, having its origin in lose, a verb, may 
be said to be derived from a verb ; it takes an object, 
time, and in that respect is. like a verb, and may be 
said to partake of the natnre of a verb; it is used to 
limit a noun (watch), a use characteristic of adjec- 
tives, and may therefore be said to partake of the 
nature of an adjective. Any such word as losing is a 
participle ; therefore, 

b. A Participle is a word derived from a verb 
and partaking of the nature of a verb and of an ad- 
jective. 

18, a. 

His illness arose from breathing impure air. 
Here breathing is a word derived from a verb and 
partaking of the nature of a verb. Moreover, it is the 
object of a preposition (from), a relation common 
with nouns, and so partakes of the nature of a noun. 
Such a word as breathing is an infinitive ; hence, 

b. An Infinitive is a word derived from a verb 
and partaking of the nature of a verb and of a noun. 

19. Recalling the definitions of a noun, a pronoun, an 
adjective, &c., &c, it will appear that the division of words 



28 TOPICS. 

The classes of words defined. 



into classes is based upon the uses, or relations, of words 
as such in propositions. It has already been stated that 
the spelling of a word is not a safe guide in determining its 
class. (See p. 18.) 

20. In 

I do not know, alas ! what may happen, 
is it true? pooh! I don't care, 
this is, oh! so fanny, 

alas, pooh, and oh are introduced quite regardless of 
relation and even of position, and might be given any 
other position, or be omitted altogether, without im- 
pairing the completeness of the proposition as such. 
Their use can perhaps be best described by the col- 
loquial phrase, " thrown in;'* and such words are 
accordingly called interjections. Since they do 
not bear grammatical relations to propositions they 
cannot be classed. 

21- Many words, like 

herself, handful, mill-race, 

pea-green, underline, notwithstanding, 
double-quick, forever, overflowing, 

are composed" of two or more words combined so intimate- 
ly as to become practically one word. All the classes of 
words are drawn from in making compound words, and 
every class of words has compound words among its mem- 
bers. The class to which a compound word belongs is 
determined exactly as with other words, by the relations it 
may hold in propositions, and not by the class membership 
of the separate words composing it. 
[Exercises, &c, in the Helps.] 



TOPICS, 29 



PROPOSITIONS. 



KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS 

22. Comparing the propositions, 

the work has been finished, 

finish the work, 

haye you finished the work? 

it will appear that the first is used to make an asser- 
tion or declaration ; the second to express a com- 
mand ; the third to make an inquiry or interrogation. 
Such a proposition as the first is a declarative 
proposition. One like the second is an imperative 
proposition. Any proposition like the third is an 
interrogative proposition. These terms almost 
explain themselves. 

23, a- The work has been finished, 

the work has been finished and the laborers 
have been paid, 

when the work has been finished, the labor- 
ers shall be paid. 

Comparing these examples, the second and third will 
be seen to be composed each of two propositions, 
while the first is composed of only one. In the third 
example, the work has been finished cannot strictly 
be said to make an independent assertion. Its as- 
sertive force is dependent upon its connection, through 
when, with the laborers shall be paid, which, how- 
ever, does have a propositional force of its own. The 



30 TOPICS. 

Kinds of propositions. 

principal part, then, is taken by the proposition, the 
laborers shall be paid; while the proposition when 
the work is finished merely limits the other by indi- 
cating the time or the condition of the payment, and 
thus takes a subordinate part. So that the one may 
be called a principal proposition, and the other a 

SUBORDINATE Or DEPENDENT PROPOSITION, terms 

which almost explain themselves. 

b. In the second 'example neither of the proposi- 
tions is dependent upon the other ; they may both be 

called INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 

24, a. Any proposition, like the first of the exam- 
ples above, which contains only one subject and one 
predicate, is a simple proposition. 

b. A proposition, like the second, composed of two 
or more independent and simple propositions, is a 
compound proposition. 

C. A proposition, like the third, composed of a 
principal and one or more dependent propositions, is 
called a complex proposition. 

Remark. — The terms compound-complex and 
complex-compound are given to more complicated 
propositions. According to some grammarians, a 
simple proposition is one that is composed of only 
one subject and one predicate ; and all others are 
compound propositions. 

d. The word Clause is a general term often used 



TOPICS. 3 1 

Kinds of propositions. 

to denote any one of the component propositions of 
a compound or a complex proposition. 

C The term Sentence is very commonly used in a sense 
practically equivalent to that of the term Proposition as em- 
ployed in this book, But most of the definitions of a sentence 
say, in substance, that a sentence is a combination of words to- 
gether expressing a complete thought. Without assuming to 
question the accuracy of the definition, we may state that such 
definitions are based on the meaning of the sentence, not on 
the relations of the parts composing it, and are, therefore, 
logical definitions rather than grammatical. Terms employed in 
a grammar would best be used in a grammatical sense. If the 
student chooses, for the sake of variety, to use the term sentence 
with the meaning of the term proposition, no especial objection 
can be offered, provided he use the term with that meaning in 
every case. 



THE SIMPLE PROPOSITION. 

25, a- We have learned that a proposition is com- 
posed of two essential parts, a subject and a predi- 
cate. It has been seen that the subject of a proposi- 
tion may be a name of something, or a word used 
instead of a name. But the expressions, 

the cow and the calf are dead, 

to wait is often tedious, 

it is growing cold, it rains, it hails, 

illustrate other constructions : 

b- The first example illustrates the fact that two or 
more names (or their equivalents) may be so intimate- 
ly connected as to form practically one grammatical 
subject, taking one verb or having one predicate. 



32 TOPICS. 

The Simple Proposition. 

C. By the second we are taught that an infinitive 
may be the subject of a proposition. 

d. The propositions in the third example have for 
a subject the word it, but used here in the place of 
no definitely assignable noun or name. It, as here 
used, is called an impersonal pronoun, and, as a 
subject, an impersonal subject. 

e. The word there may be used somewhat similarly, as 
in 

there once lived two princes. 

But in this case there, though occupying the position of a 
subject, is not really a subject. Two princes is the subject, 
and there is an expletive. 

26? a- In the expression, 

they paid him money, 

the noun money is object of the verb paid. So, also, is the 
pronoun him. But we may consider money to be more 
directly connected with paid than him is. That one of the 
objects of a verb which is most intimately connected with 
the verb is called the direct object; the other, the 
indirect object. In this case the expression, without 
change of meaning, may be made to read, 
they paid money to him. 

Here the word which was in the other example the indirect 
object of the verb, is made the object of a preposition, to. 
The indirect object of a verb is generally susceptible of 
such a transposition. 

b. Participles and infinitives, as well as verbs, may take 
a direct and an indirect object. 



topics. 33 

Clauses. 

C. Remark. — Some persons hold that a verb never has an 
indirect object. They affirm that what we have called an indi- 
rect object is always the object of a preposition expressed or 
understood. 

d. In 

they called him a hero, 

the construction is different from that in 

they paid him money. 

In the latter, money represents one object of thought, and 
him an entirely different object. But, in the former, hero 
and him represent the same object. It is not customary to 
apply the terms direct and indirect object to words rep- 
resenting the same individual. The term attributive 
object may be applied to a word used as hero is used in 
this example. 



SOME USES OF PROPOSITIONS AS CLAUSES, 

27, a. In # 

how long we shall stay is not decided, 

how long we shall stay is a proposition, used as the 
subject. In this respect it is like a noun. Any word, 
or phrase, or clause, used as a noun, is said to be 
used substantively. Therefore, how long we shall 
stay, above, is used substantively. Clauses so used 
are called substantive clauses. The term noun 
clause is used in the same sense. 

b. But nouns may be used in other relations than that 
2* 



34 topics. 

Phrases. 



of subject. So substantive clauses may be used in various 
relations. 

28- In the expression, 

the house you painted white is sold, 
you painted white, equivalent to which you painted 
white, a dependent proposition, is used to limit adjec- 
tively the word house, a noun. The common name 
for a dependent proposition used adjectively is ad- 
jective clause. 

29. He stood where I could see him. 

Where I could see him limits the verb stood adverbially. 
The student will readily apply the term adverb 
clause. 

30. It has been already stated that parts of proposi- 
tions are often omitted, and the term understood has been 
applied to such parts. The omission is called an ELLIPSIS. 
(See p. 17.) 



PHRASES. 

31, a. In the proposition, 

at the last it Mteth like a serpent, 

the three words at the last are equivalent to at last. 
Both of these expressions have the force of finally, 
an adverb, and a single word. We have already seen 
that in 

he stood where I could see him, 
where I could see him has an adverbial force, and 



topics. 35 

Phrases. 



that it is a proposition. But at the last and at last 
are not propositions. Such a collection of words as 
at the last or at last is called a phrase ; therefore, 

b. A Phrase is a collection of words, not form- 
ing a proposition, which together have the force of 
a single member of some class of words. 

32- Adverbs, as in the example above, are not the only 
words represented by phrases. With a little thought the 
student will be able to construct propositions containing 
phrases representing nearly all the other classes of words. 



36 TOPICS. 



THE CLASSES OF WORDS, 

SEPARATELY STUDIED. 



KINDS, PROPERTIES : RULES. 

33. Remark. — In defining the classes of words v/e have 
sought out some particular uses by which the members of a class 
may be distinguished. Every object, however, possesses quali- 
ties besides those which serve to distinguish it from objects of 
other classes. The same is true of words. They have uses and 
properties not mentioned in a definition, but whose mention is 
nevertheless necessaiy to a reasonably full description. We 
shall have to do with some of the most important of these latter, 
those we can least afford to overlook. We will study separately 
the several classes of words, following the order marked out in 
the preceding topics. 



iioims. 



SOME KINDS OF NOUNS. 
(Hints and Exercises in Helps.) 

34. We have seen that a word to be a noun must 
be a name. The examples, 

boy, street, tune, country, and 

John, Broadway, Greenville, France, 

show us that a word may be the name of an object as 
one of a class of objects ; or that it may be the name 
of an individual object distinguished by it from other 
individuals of the same class. Such names as boy, 
street, tune, country, coming under the first head, are 



topics. 2>7 

The Noun : Numbers. 



generally called common nouns ; while names like 
John, Broadway, Greenville, France, the names of indi- 
vidual objects, are called proper nouns. 

35- Compound nouns. (See p. 28.) 

36- Nouns like 

assemblage, people, throng, herd, 
family, dozen, pair, 

which in the singular signify a collection of things, are called 
COLLECTIVE NOUNS or COLLECTIVES. 



NUMBERS. 

(Hints and Exercises in Helps.) 

87, a. In the expression, 

listen to the song of songs, 
song and songs are forms used respectively to distin- 
guish one and more than one. Such forms of words 
are called numbers ; therefore, 

b. Numbers are forms of words used to distin- 
guish one and more than one. 

C. The form song distinguishes one from more than 
one ; songs, more than one from one. Such a form 
as the first is a singular number ; as the second, a 
plural number. Other examples are hook, books; 
man, men. Song, book, man, are nouns ; therefore, 

d. Nouns have Numbers : singular and plu- 
ral. English nouns have only these two numbers. 



38 TOPICS. 

The Noun : Numbers. 

38. In saying that nouns have numbers we apply the 
term nouns to the class nouns, not to any individual mem- 
ber of the class. And so with the names of other classes. 
For while it is true that nouns as a class have numbers, 
such nouns as sheep, deer, are exceptions. Sheep does 
not distinguish one from more than one, nor more than one 
from one. Nor is there any authorized form of the word 
sheep which serves such a purpose. In fact, the noun 
sheep has not any number. Likewise the noun deer. 

39» Some words, again, often employ their singular 
form with a plural meaning, as, 

fish, pike, foot, ton. 
Such is especially true of collectives. For example, 
dozen, set, pair, head (of cattle). 

40- Certain abstract objects of thought, such as thoughtful- 
ness, simplicity, music, can hardly be conceived as existing in 
numbers, but only as one. Therefore, the names of such will 
have, as a rule, only one number form, the singular. 



FORMATION OF PI^URAIiS OF NOUNS, 

41, a- Plurals may be either spoken or written. 
Ey pronouncing the plurals of the singular nouns, 
liat, bag, watch, it will appear that the spoken plurals 
of these words are produced respectively by adding 
the sound of s, z 5 and fcz to the spoken singular. 
Plurals formed as these are, are regular spoken 
plurals. Other spoken plurals are irregular. 



topics. 39 

The Noun : Numbers. 



b. In the first case the sound of s is added rather than 
the sound of z, because that sound combines more readily 
with the last sound of the singular ; in the second case, the 
sound of z combines more readily with the last sound of 
the singular; in the third case neither the sound of s nor 
that of z will combine readily with the last sound of the 
singular, and therefore the sound of gz is added. 

42. Hats, the written plural of the noun hat, is 
formed by adding s to the written singular ; bags, the 
plural of bag, by adding likewise s $ watches, plural 
of watch, by adding es. In these plurals the s repre- 
sents the sound respectively of s and of z j and the es, 
the sound of $z. Such written plurals are regular 
written plurals. Other written plurals are ir- 
regular. 



OF IRREGULAR WRITTEN PLURALS, 

(For Lists of Irregular Plurals see the end of the Helps.) 

43. Beauty, duty, pony, are nouns singular ending 
in y preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these 
words are beauties, duties, ponies, formed by substi- 
tuting i for y and adding es. The plural of other 
similar nouns is formed in the same way. 

44. Hero, negro, potato, are nouns singular ending in 
o preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these words are 
heroes, negroes, potatoes, formed by adding es. The 
plural of most similar nouns is formed in the same way. 



40 TOPICS. 

The Noun : Numbers. 



45. Court-martial, man-of-war, are compound nouns, 
singular number. Of these the plurals are courts-martial, 
men-of-war, formed in each case by pluralizingthe most 
important part of the word. Most compound nouns are 
thus pluralized. 

46. The words five, aitch, plus, are nouns singular; 
plurals, fives, aitches, pluses. The first singular is gener- 
ally represented by the figure 5, the second by the letter h, 
the third by the sign +. When the singulars are thus 
represented, the plurals are commonly represented by 
5's, li'§, + 's, i. e., by affixing an apostrophe and an s to 
the sign for the singular. The same is true generally of 
other figures, letters, and signs ; and also of any word 
used as its own nante, as, 

the paragraph contains too many and's. 

47. The nouns minutia and dogma are words taken from 
foreign languages. For the plural of minutia we employ 
minutiae, the regular foreign plural of that word. For the 
plural of dogma we generally use dogmas, formed by plu- 
ralizing in the English way ; but we may use dogmata, the 
regular foreign plural of dogma. In general terms, then, 
we use the regular foreign plural of some foreign words, 
while of others we may use either the regular foreign plu- 
ral or a plural formed according to the rule for English 
nouns. 

If a foreign word is pluralized in both ways, the English 
plural is preferred in ordinary social conversation ; and the 
foreign, in scientific. 

There are many other irregular plurals which can be learned 
l>est, perhaps, by observation. Lists of irregular plurals will be 
found on p. 123. 



TOPICS. 41 

The Noun ; Genders. 

GENDERS. 

(Hints, Exercises, and Lists, in Helps.) 

48, a- In the expression, 

the prince and the princess are fond of 
society, 

the form prince represents an object as belonging to 
one sex, and princess an object as belonging to the 
other sex. Hence we may affirm that they distin- 
guish objects in regard to sex. Such forms of words 
are called genders ; therefore, 

b. Genders are forms of words used to distinguish 
objects in regard to sex. 

C. Such a form as prince is a masculine gender ; 
A MASCULINE gender is that form of a word which 
represents an object as belonging to the male sex. 

d. Such a form as princess is a feminine gender : 

A feminine gender is that form of a word which 
represents an object as belonging to the female sex. 

Remark. — When we say, 

the moon sheds her light, 

we use the form her to represent the moon as belonging to the 
female sex. The moon does not have sex. 

e. Prince, princess, and likewise count, countess, are 

nouns ; therefore, 

Nouns have Genders, masculine and femi- 
nine. 

49. Most of the feminine genders that are formed from 
a masculine are made by the addition of ess to the mascu- 
line, as heiress from heir. The tendency now is (188 1) to 



42 TOPICS. 

The Noun : Cases. 



discard the feminine forms and to use the masculine form 
indifferently for either male or female. Thus the editor of 
a paper may be either a man or a woman. 

50. A form used to represent an object as belonging to 
no sex, if there is such a form, would be called a neuter 

CENDER. 

In words such as friend, child, parent^ there is nothing 
to distinguish the sex of the object represented ; and such 
words as tin, warmth, sensitiveness, never in themselves 
convey even a suggestion of sex. Such words have no 
.gender. 

English nouns have only the two genders, masculine 
and feminine. 

5 1 . Genders are little used in the English language, but 
substitutes for them are employed. For example, in 

the hoy and the girl sing well together, 
boy and girl are distinct words. Girl is not a form of boy, 
and boy is not a form of girl. But they are equivalent to 
genders of each other, one meaning a young male of the 
human kind, and the other a young female of the same 
kind. To such words the term GENDER EQUIVALENTS 
may be conveniently applied. 



CASES. 

52, a. 

That life is long which answers life's 
great end. 

Here the form life is used in the relation of subject; 
the form life's, in the relation of a limiting word. 



topics. 43 

The Noun : Cases. 



The latter form is not appropriate to the relation in 
which life is, nor the former to the relation in which 
life's is. It is on account of the relation of the word 
in each case that the particular form is used. Such 
forms are Cases ; therefore, 

b. Cases are forms of words used on account of 
the relations the words hold to other words. 

C. The first of the forms above is the simple form 
of the noun, the naming form, and is called a simple 

CASE Or NOMINATIVE CASE. 

d. Forms like the second, which is here used to 
limit another word in a certain way, are typically and 
generally used to limit by denoting possession, and 
are accordingly called possessive cases : 

e. A Possessive case is a form used to limit, 
ordinarily by denoting possession. 

f. Life, life's, and John, John's, are nouns ; there- 
fore, 

Nouns have Cases: simple or nominative and 
possessive. English nouns have no other cases. 



Formation of the Possessive. 

53, a. 

This casket India's glowing: gems unlocks, 

words are men's daughters, 

by others' faults wise men correct their own. 

In these expressions the words India's, men's, and 



44 topics. 

The Noun : Cases. 



others' are possessives ; the first is a singular, the 
second and third are plurals. The first and second 
are formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to 
the simple or nominative case. The nominative case 
of the third is a plural, ending in s : its possessive is 
formed by adding an apostrophe only. With a few 
exceptions, the possessives of other nouns are formed 
In the same way. Whence the rule : 

b. The possessive case of a noun should be 
formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to 
the nominative case ; unless the noun be a plural 
ending in s 5 in which event the apostrophe alone 
should be added. 

C- When the nominative singular ends in s, the 
poets sometimes add the apostrophe alone in forming 
the possessive. The weight of authority favors the 
employment in prose of the additional s. 

54. The preposition of is frequently used with an ob- 
ject, the two together forming a phrase equivalent to a pos- 
sessive noun. Thus, 

the roar of the waves 
is equivalent to, 

the waves' roar. 
The simple case with the preposition is generally to be 
preferred to the possessive case. 



topics. 45 

The Noun : Cases ; Rules- 



RXL.ES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 

To construct a noun properly in any given relation 
is to use the proper form for that relation. 

For Noun as Subject. 

55, a. In 

earth with a thousand yoices praises God, 
earth is a noun used as subject and is in the nomina- 
tive case. It is agreed that any noun so used shall be 
in the nominative case. Hence the rule : 

b. A noun used as the subject of a proposition 
must be in the nominative case. 

Must be is used in the sense of must be put. 
For Noun as Attribute. 

56, a. In the expression, 

innocence is his shield, 
shield is a noun used as attribute and is in the nomi- 
native case. It is agreed that a noun so used shall be 
in the nominative case. Rule : 

b. A noun used as the attribute of a proposition 
must be in the nominative case. 

For Noun used as Object. 

57, a. In 

lives there a man who loves his pain? 
pain is a noun used as the object of a verb. It is in 
the simple or nominative case. It is agreed that a 
noun so used shall be in the nominative case. Rule ; 



46 TOPICS. 

The Noun : Cases : Rules. 



b. A noun used as the object of a verb must be 
in the nominative case. 

REMARK. — Do not confuse the terms relation and case. 
A noun used as object is in the objective relation. A noun 
used as subject is in the subjective relation. In 

he does not love his pain, and 

the pain is severe, 
pain is used, first, in the objective relation, and secondly, in 
the subjective relation. Pain in the first example is identi- 
cal in form with pain in the second. It is the simple form y 
or, as we have named that form, the nominative case. 

For Noun in other Relations. 

58, a. In the same way, by employing expressions 
like the following, the students may derive rules for 
the construction of nouns used respectively as the ob- 
ject of a Preposition, a Participle, and an Infinitive : 

they struggle for renown, 

the farmer's hoy is ploughing corn, 

he loves to sing his little song, 

b. In 

that is a book of William's, 

the use of the possessive after a preposition is peculiar. The 
possessive so used is considered more emphatic than when used 
in the ordinary way. To explain the expression we read, 

that is a book of William's books, 
which means practically, 

that is one of William's books. 
So that the apparent anomaly is really a regular employment of 
a noun in the possessive to limit another noun (understood). 



topics. 47 

The Noun : Cases : Rules. 



For the Possessive. 

59, a. In the proposition, 

iny life is my foe's debt, 
foe's is a noun used to limit the noun debt, which de- 
notes a different thing from that denoted by foe's^ 
Foe's is a possessive case. It is agreed that a noun 
used as foe's is used shall be in the possessive case. 
Rule : 

b. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a 
different person or thing must be in the possessive 
case. 

C. If the limiting noun actually denotes possession the 
rule may be stated : A noun used to limit by denoting pos- 
session must be in the possessive case. 

For Noun in Apposition. 

60, a. 

For the sake of David, my servant. 

Here the word servant is a noun limiting another 
noun (David) which denotes the same person. The 
two nouns are practically alike in their relation to the 
rest of the proposition. A noun used as servant is, 
in this proposition, is said to be in apposition with 
the noun it limits ; or the two are in apposition. 
David and servant are in the same case. Hence the 
rule : 

b. Nouns in apposition shall be in the same case. 

C. If nouns in the possessive are in apposition it is cus- 
tomary to use only one possessive sign and to join that to 



48 TOPICS. 

The Noun : Cases : Rules. 



the possessive which stands directly before the word which 
the possessive limits, as in 

for my servant David's sake. 
In this case the possessive sign, though written in immedi- 
ate connection with David, is supposed to belong just as 
much to servant as to David. 

For Noun Independent. 

61, a. 

My friends, I come not here to talk. 
Friends does not really form a part of a proposition, 
and is in that respect independent of grammatical re- 
lations. Words so used are said to be grammati- 
cally independent. Friends is in the nominative 
case. It is agreed that a noun grammatically inde- 
pendent, &c, &c. Rule. 

62. Instead of a separate rule for each construction we 
may frame general rules to cover similar constructions, re- 
ducing the number of rules. Thus the rules for construc- 
tion might read : 

1. A noun used in the relation of object must be in the 

nominative case ; 

2. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a differ- 

ent person or thing must be in the possessive case ; 

3. Nouns in apposition must be in the same case ; 

4. A noun used in any other relation must be in the 

nominative case. 

(Exercises in Parsing, &c, in the Helps.) 



topics. 49 

PRONOUNS. 



SOME KINDS OF PRONOUNS, 

(Exercises, &c., in the Helps.) 

63. The pronouns I, thou, and he, possess a prop- 
erty called person (see paragraph 66). They are on 
that account called the personal pronouns. 

64. In 

he is a man who understands his business, 
the pronoun who, while subject of the proposition, 
who understands his business, 

also serves to connect that proposition with the propo- 
sition 

he is a man, 
to show that the second relates to man, a part of the 
first. There are several such pronouns. They are 
called conjunctive pronouns or relative pro- 
nouns. 

65. The pronoun who may also be used as in 

w h o is here ? 
viz., in putting a question. Who, what, which, and 
whether, when so used, are called interrogative 
pronouns. But it is doubtful whether at least what 
and which, when so used, should not be called adjec- 
tives, INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

There are other kinds of pronouns, whose names are not so 
commonly used as the preceding, and are omitted as compara- 
tively unimportant. 

3 



50 TOPICS. 

The Pronoun: Properties. 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS, 

66, a. 

I call, thou callest, h e calls. 

I is used to distinguish a person as the speaker; thou, 
a person as spoken to ; he, as spoken of. Such a 
form as either I, thou, or he, is a person. We may, 
then, state that 

b. Persons are forms of words used to distin- 
guish a person (or thing) as speaking, or as spoken 
to, or as spoken of. 

Such a person as I is called a first person ; as 
thou, a second person ; as he, a third person. 

C. I, thou, and he, are pronouns; therefore, 
' Pronouns have Persons. 

The three persons mentioned in these examples are not, how- 
ever, forms of one another. Yet each is probably the remnant 
of a set of forms of one word. If this is not true, the propriety 
of calling these, or any other different words, persons, may be 
fairly questioned. 

I 67, a. In 

if thou dost not, they will, 

it is obvious that thou and they are numbers. Thou is 
a pronoun. So, likewise, is they ; therefore, 

b. Pronouns have Numbers: singular and 

PLURAL. 



TOPICS. 51 

The Pronoun : Properties. 

68, a- He and she, his and hers, represent the 
Genders of Pronouns: masculine and femi- 
nine. 

b. Whether it is a gender or not depends upon whether 
it distinguishes an object in regard to sex. As a fact, it is 
seldom, if ever, used with any even remote purpose of sug- 
gesting the idea of sex. Those who believe that it is a 
gender call it a neuter gender. 

69, a. In the propositions, 

who art thou? 

thy strength is manifest, 

I love thee, old England, 

thou, thy, and thee, are forms used on account of the 
respective relations of the pronoun to other words. 
Such forms we have learned to call cases. It is ob- 
vious that thou is a nominative case and thy a posses- 
sive case. The form thee is here used in the objec- 
tive relation (object of love), and, in fact, is set apart 
for use in that relation. Any such form is an objec- 
tive case ; therefore, 

b. An Objective case is that form of a word 
which is set apart for the objective relation. 

From these several illustrations it will appear that 

c. Pronouns have Cases : nominative, posses- 
sive, and objective. English pronouns have no other 
cases. 

d. Let it not be inferred that every pronoun has all three 
cases. For example, which exists in only the simple form, 
and it, its, are the only forms of the pronoun it. 



52 TOPICS. 

The Pronoun : Rules. 



70. The number of pronouns is comparatively 
small. Yet, on account of the frequency of the use 
of pronouns, they constitute an important class. Be- 
low is a list of the forms of the principal pronouns. 





First 


Person. Second 


Person. 




SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. 


plural. 


Nom. 


I 


we thou 


you, ye 


Poss. 


my, mine our, ours thy, thine 


your, yours 


Obj. 


me 


us thee 

Third Person. 


(you) 






singular. 


PLURAL. 




Mas. 


Fern. Neuter.(?) 




Nom. 


he 


she it 


they 


Poss. 


his 


her, hers its 


their, tkeirs 


Obj. 


him 


her(?) (it) 


them 



The pronoun "who has three cases : nom. who ; poss. 
whose ; obj. whom. For the pronoun it, used, imperson- 
ally, see p. 32, d. Some grammars contain full lists of pro- 
nouns. The interested student will find it profitable to 
examine such lists. 



RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

For Pronoun as Subject. 

71, a. 

He is a prince among* princes. 

He is a pronoun used as a subject and is in the nomi- 



topics. 53 

The Pronoun: Rules. 

native case. It is agreed that a pronoun so used shall 
be in the nominative case. Rule : 

b. A pronoun used as the subject of a proposition 
must be in the nominative case. 

For Pronoun as Attribute. 

72, a. 

It is I, I am he, we are they. 
I, he, and they, are pronouns used as attributes. 
They are in the nominative case. It is agreed that a 
pronoun so used shall be in the nominative case. 
Rule: 

b. A pronoun used as the attribute of a proposi- 
tion must be in the nominative case. 

For Pronoun as Object. 

73, a- In the expressions, 

I commend him to you, and 
the fur which the monarch wears warmed 
a bear, 

Mm and which are pronouns used in the relation of 
object. Him is an objective case. Which is a nomina- 
tive case and is used rather than an objective case, 
presumably because an objective case of which does 
not exist. It is agreed, &c, &c. Rule : 

b. A pronoun used in the relation of object must 
be in the objective case if the pronoun has such a 
case ; otherwise, in the nominative case. 

This rule applies to the object of a Preposition, the ob- 
ject of a Participle, and the object of an Infinitive. 



54 topics. 

The Pronoun : Rules. 



For the Possessive. 

74. The rule for a pronoun used to limit by de- 
noting possession is essentially the same as that for a 
noun similarly used, and may be similarly stated. 
(See p. 47.) 

For Pronoun in Apposition. 

75, a- In the expression, 

behold the king here j him whom all men 
praise, 

him is a pronoun in apposition with a noun, king. We 
have already learned that words in apposition hold 
essentially the same relation in a proposition. It 
should follow, then, that a pronoun in apposition 
with a noun should have the case it would have if 
used in the position of the noun, i.e., if the noun 
were omitted and the pronoun substituted for it. 
This principle is observed in the construction of him, 
above ; for if we omit the noun king we shall say, 

behold him here, &c., 
him being the case prescribed by a previous rule for 
a pronoun used in the objective relation. Hence the 
rule : 

b.'A pronoun used in apposition with a noun 
must have the case prescribed to it for the relation 
in which the noun stands. 

C. If nouns and pronouns had the same number of 
cases and the cases had the same names, the rule might 
stand: A pronoun in apposition with a noun or with 



topics. 55 

The Pronoun: Rules. 



another pronoun must be in the same case with that noun 
or pronoun. 

For Pronoun and Antecedent. 

76, a. In 
beauty's tears are lovelier than her smile , 
beauty's is the word for which her stands. The word 
for which a pronoun stands is the antecedent of 
the pronoun. 

b. In 

the king abdicated his throne, 
t)oth king and his are of the masculine gender and 
singular number. When two or more persons hold 
the same opinion we say they agree in opinion. In 
like manner, when words have certain common prop- 
erties, we may say the words agree in whatever they 
•have in common. 

The his already mentioned is a pronoun and king* 
is its antecedent. Because they have in common the 
masculine gender and singular number we say they 
agree in gender and number. But in 

he was a king who loved his people, 
while the antecedent, king, is a masculine gender and 
singular number, the pronoun who has neither gender 
nor number, and therefore cannot agree with its ante- 
cedent. We may, then, derive the rule : 

C. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender and number whenever both have gender and 
number. 



56 topics. 

ADJECTIVES. 



some: kinds of adjectives. 

[Exercises, &c, in the Helps.] 

77. Some adjectives, like 

three, fourth, one, first, 

convey an idea of number. Such adjectives are 

Called NUMERAL ADJECTIVES, Or NUMERALS. 

78. The terms interrogative adjectives, pro- 
nominal ADJECTIVES, and COMPOUND ADJECTIVES 

will explain themselves. 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

79? a- In the expressions, 

we thought you honest, 
we thought him honest, 
we thought the m honest, 
we thought her honest, 

the adjective honest is constructed with words, you, 
him, them, her, differing, in the several examples, in 
person, number, gender, and case. But the form of 
honest remains the same throughout. As a rule, ad- 
jectives undergo no change of form when used in these 
several ways. We may affirm, then, that 

b. Adjectives have neither Persons, Num- 
bers, Genders, nor Cases. 



topics. 57 

The Adjective : Comparison. 

C- There are two exceptions : this, which has a plural, 
these $ and that, plural those. 

COMPARISON. 

80. If we say of several acts that one is noble, 
another nobler, and a third noblest, we imply that the 
quality of acts may differ in degree. And we use 
the forms noble, nobler, noblest, to express such differ- 
ent degrees of that particular quality. In a similar 
way we may employ the forms brave, braver, bravest. 
We have not a good name for such forms. But be- 
cause by employing them we imply a comparison of 
the degrees of a quality, we may call them forms of 
comparison. 

81. To distinguish the first of the forms, noble, 
nobler, noblest, from the others, we might properly 
call it the simple form, but the name positive form 
is more commonly given it. The second is equivalent 
to more noble, a phrase made by combining the word 
more with the simple form of the adjective. Such a 
form is called a comparative form. The third is 
equivalent to most noble, which combines the word 
most with the simple form. Such a form is called a 

SUPERLATIVE FORM. 

82. a. Noble and brave (above) are adjectives ; 
therefore, 

Adjectives have Forms of Comparison : sim- 
ple or positive, comparative, and superlative. 
3* 



58 TOPICS. 

The Adjective : Comparison. 

b. If one writes or pronounces in succession the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative forms 
of an adjective, he is said to compare the adjective. 

83. From the examples, 

tall, taller, tallest, 
young, younger, youngest, 

it appears that the comparative form of an adjective may 
be made by adding er to the positive ; and the superlative 
by adding est to the positive. This is the usual or REGU- 
LAR way of forming comparatives and superlatives. Other 
ways may be learned by observation. 

84, a. 

Brilliant light, 
more brilliant light, 
most brilliant light. 

The adjective brilliant expresses a quality. But it is not 
here, nor is it ever varied in form to express different de- 
grees of the quality. The same is true of many other ad- 
jectives ; i. e., some adjectives are not compared. 

b. Many adjectives are both compared and combined 
with more and most to form phrases cf comparison. 

85. The words less and least are also often used with 
the simple form of adjectives to form, in ft certain negative 
sense, phrases of comparison. 



topics. 59 



VERBS. 



SOUIE KINDS OF VERBS. 

86. The terms transitive and intransitive, as 
applied to verbs, and also the term compound, have 
been explained. (See pp. 22, 23, 28.) 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 

(Exercises, &c, in the Helps.) 

87, a. 

I am , thou art, he is. 
The forms am, art, and is, lead us to think of the 
speaker, the person spoken to, and the person spoken 
of. Such forms we have learned to call persons. 
(See definition, p. 50.) 

b. In 

thou lovest, he lores, 
loyest and lores are likewise persons. These several 
words are verbs ; therefore, 

Verbs have Persons. 

88. 

Am, are, loveth, was, walkest, were, 

as verbs, illustrate the fact that 
Verbs have Numbers. 



60 TOPICS, 

The Verb : Tenses. 



89, a. Comparing write with wrote, and sleep 
with slept, as they occur in 

I write, I wrote, 
they sleep, they slept, 

we observe that write affirms an act as taking place 
at the present time, and sleep affirms a condition as a 
present one ; while the time of that affirmed by wrote 
and slept is past time. Write and wrote, then, and 
sleep and slept may be described as forms which dis- 
tinguish the time of that expressed by them. Such 
forms are tenses. These words are verbs ; there- 
fore, 

b. Verbs have Tenses: present and past. 
English verbs have only these two tenses : present 
tense and past tense, terms which explain them- 
selves. 



FORMATION OF THE PAST TENSE, 

90, a. In 

I laugh, I laughed, 
laugh is a present tense ; laughed, a past tense. The 
latter is formed from the present tense by adding the 
letters ed. Past tenses made by adding ed to the 
present tense form are said to be regularly formed. 
Verbs whose past tense is thus formed are called 
regular verbs. Other verbs are irregular. 

For lists of irregular verbs see p. 123. 



TOPICS. 6 1 

The Verb : Agreement. 

1). Comparing 

I recite, and I recited, 

recited, a past tense, would seem to be formed from the present 
tense by adding only d. But this is not true historically. The 
ed of recited is strictly the termination added to form the past 
tense, the e of recite being dropped, or omitted, in accordance 
with a familiar rule of orthography. The change may be repre- 
sented by recit\€\ed. The same rule is observed in the formation 
of salable from sale. 

Agreement. 

91, a. In the expressions, 

I am, thou art, he is, thou lovest, he lores, 

the several verbs agree with their subject in person 
and number. In 

we are, they are, 
there is agreement in number only, are having no per- 
son. In 

I read, they read, 

there is no agreement in either person or number, be- 
cause read is neither a person nor a number. The 
following, then, may be stated for a rule : 

b. A verb and its subject must agree in person 
and number when both have the requisite person and 
number. 

92, a.. Verbs seldom have the requisite person and 
number. The verb commonly called to he has more person 
and number forms than any other English verb. The 
" forms " of this verb as used with the various forms of the 
pronouns are : 



62 TOPICS, 

The Verb: Agreement. 





Present Tense. 






SINGULAR. 


PLURAL, 


1st P. 


I am, 


we are, 


2d P. 


thou art, 


you are, 


3d P. 


he is, 

Past Tense. 


they are. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1st P. 


I was, 


we were, 


2d P. 


thou wast, 


you were, 


3d P. 


he was, 


they were. 



It will be seen that this verb has the requisite forms in 
both tenses for agreement in both numbers (no other verb 
has). For agreement in all three persons it has the requi- 
site forms in only the singular of the present tense, having 
only one person in the singular of the past tense, and none 
in the plural of either tense. 

b. Let the verb move illustrate the facts concerning 
other verbs : 



Present Tense, 
singular. plural. 

I move, we move, 

thou movest, you move, 

he moves (moveth), they move. 

Past Tense, 
singular. plural. 

I moved, we moved, 

thou movedst, you moved, 

he moved, they moved. 

The present tense has no persons in the " plural," and only 
the second and the third persons in the singular ; and it has 
no singular number for the first person and no plural num- 
ber for either of the persons. Even less is to be said for 
the past tense. 



ist P. 
2d P. 
3d P. 



1st P. 
2d P. 
3d P. 



TOPICS. 63 

The Verb : Phrases. 



93, a. If instead of he in he moyes (above) we were 
to use John, saying John moves, we should have a verb in 
the present tense used with a singular noun. It will be 
seen that the verb is put in the singular number (according 
to the rule), and also in the third person, though John, like 
all other nouns, has no person : 

b. Whenever a verb in the present tense is used 
with a noun that is singular in form (or in sense), the 
third person, singular, of the verb must be used. 



SOME VERB PHRASES. 

(For Discussion of Verb Phrases see Helps, p. 117.) 

94. When we say, 

I shall write, 

you will write, 

I am going to write, 

I am on the point of writing, 

the phrases shall write, will write, am going to write, 
am on the point of writing, are used to represent the 
act of writing as to take place in future time. There 
are no forms of English verbs thus representing an 
act. If such forms existed they would probably be 
called future tenses. The above phrases, equiva- 
lent to future tenses, may be called future-tense 
phrases. 



64 topics. 

The Verb : Phrases. 



95, a. 

I hare written, 

thou hast written, 

he has written. 

Have written, hast written, has written, represent the 
act of writing as completed at the present time. These 
phrases are combinations of the verb-forms have, 
hast, has, with the perfect participle of write, the verb 
expressing the action. (See p. 68, b.) Any phrase 
similarly composed is called a present-perfect- 
tense phrase. 

b. It is agreed that if we wish to represent an action or 
state as finished or perfected at the present time, we shall 
do it by combining have, or hast, or has, with the perfect 
participle of the verb which expresses the act or state. 

Some exceptions to this rule will be observed by the student, 
and some exceptions to following rules also. 

96, 

We had gone when the message arrived, 
thou hadst gone when the message arrived. 

The phrases had gone and hadst gone represent an 
action as completed or perfected at or before a specified 
past time. These examples teach us that to repre- 
sent an action or state as completed at or before some 
specified time in the past, we may use a phrase com- 
bining had or hadst with the perfect participle of the 
verb expressing the action or state. Such phrases 
may be called past-perfect-tense phrases. Some 
call them pluperfect-tense phrases. 



TOPICS. 65 

The Verb : Phrases. 



97. 

I shall hare seen him ere to-morrow, 
they will have seen us ere to-morrow. 

The phrases shall hare seen and will have seen repre- 
sent an action as to be completed at ox before some 
specified future time. They teach us that in order to 
represent an action or state as to be completed at or 
before some specified future time, we may use a 
phrase made by combining the phrase will hare or 
shall have with the perfect participle of the verb ex- 
pressing the action or state. Such phrases are 

FUTURE-PERFECT-TENSE PHRASES. 

Remark.- — Verbs, participles, and infinitives combine in 
many ways to form verb-phrases of various kinds. (See p. 117.) 

98. English verbs do not at present have either 
moods or VOICES. 



66 topics. 



ADVERBS. 



SOME KINDS. 

99. Little need be said concerning adverbs. Adverbs 
may be conjunctive or relative (see p. 26, c), and 
compound. There are other kinds of adverbs, but less 
important. 



COMPARISON. 

100, a. In 

I read often, 

you read oftener, 

he reads oftenest, 

it is obvious that often, an adverb, is compared. So 
with soon, compared soon, sooner, soonest. Hence, 

Adverbs may be Compared. And, like adjec- 
tives, they may combine with more and most to form 
phrases of comparison. 

b. Some adverbs are irregularly compared. (See p. 125.) 

Remark. — The "rule" for the use of adverbs is purposely 
omitted. Likewise the "rule" for prepositions, and that for 
conjunctions. Some reasons for these omissions will be found 
stated in the Helps, p. 113. 



TOPICS. 67 

CONJUNCTIONS. 



S03IE KINDS 

101, a.. We have learned that some propositions are 
INDEPENDENT, and that others are DEPENDENT or SUBOR- 
DINATE (pp. 29, 30). Comparing independent propositions 
with one another, they may be said to be of an equal order. 
But a dependent proposition is in order or rank subordinate 
to the principal proposition that it limits. 

b. Conjunctions used to connect independent 
propositions or propositions of an equal order or 
rank, are called co-ordinating conjunctions. 
Those connecting dependent clauses with principal 
are called subordinating conjunctions. 

102, The term conjunctive adverb was explained 
in paragraph d, p. 26. The student is cautioned against 
confounding conjunctions with conjunctive adverbs. He 
will avoid the difficulty by carefully comparing and apply- 
ing the two definitions. 

103, The necessity of supplying understood parts of propo- 
sitions is more frequent in explaining the uses of conjunctions, 
perhaps, than in connection with any other kind of words ex- 
cepting conjunctive adverbs. (See pp. 23 and 26.) 



68 topics. 

PARTICIPLES. 



PROPERTIES OF PARTICIPLES. 

(Exercises, &c, in the Helps.) 

104, a. When we say, 

the liquid is fermenting, and 
the liquid has fermented, 

we use the form fermenting to represent the process 
of fermentation as still going on or as not perfected 
at the time indicated by the verb. The form 
fermented is used to represent the process as completed 
or to a certain degree perfected at the time indicated 
by the verb. Fermenting and fermented are partici- 
ples ; therefore, 

b- Participles have Forms which represent 
that which they express to be either unperfec ted or 
perfected. Such a form as the first we will call an 
imperfect participle, often called the present 
participle, or participle in -ing. Such a form as 
the second is called a perfect participle. 

105. In describing a participle it is customary to 
refer it to the verb from which it is derived. Thus 
fermenting would be called the imperfect partici- 
ple, and fermented the perfect participle of the 
Terb ferment, — the word of being used in a similar, 
but not identical, way with of in 

the son o f Zebedee. 



TOPICS. 69 

The Participle. 

106. It is obvious that the participle in -ing is formed 
by adding ing to the simple form of the present tense of 
the verb from which it is derived. 



FORMATION OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. 

107. 

I have recited, 

I have laughed, 

I have driven, 

I have hidden. 

The perfect participles in these examples are derived 
respectively from recite, laugh, drive, and hide. They 
are severally formed by adding ed or en to the simple 
form of the present tense of the verb, and making the 
regular changes prescribed by the rules of orthogra- 
phy (p. 61). Perfect participles so formed are reg- 
ular perfect participles. Others are irregular. 

'Been is a notable exception to the rule just illustrated. 

108, 3.. It is customary to speak of the simple form of 
the present tense of a verb, the simple form of the past 
tense, the imperfect participle, and the perfect participle, as 
the principal parts of the verb. Thus 

write, wrote, writing, written, 

are called the principal parts of the verb write. 

D. But a participle belongs to a different class of words from 
verbs. Therefore a participle is not strictly a part of a verb. 



yo topics. 

INFINITIVES. 



CHARACTERISTICS. 

(Exercises, &c, in the Helps.) 

109. 

I see with the naked eye but you cannot 
see without glasses. 

It will appear that the infinitive see is in form exactly 
like the root of the verb see. Such an infinitive is 
called a root infinitive, or simply an infinitive. 

110. 

He is fond of walking* 

The infinitive walking is formed from the verb walk 
by adding ing to the simple root form of the verb. 
Such an infinitive is called an infinitive in -ing. 

Ill, It will be seen, then, that infinitives, like partici- 
ples, are of two kinds. 

For remarks on the sign of the infinitive \ see p. 96. 



HELPS. 



REMARK. 

The preceding Topics contain only so much 
of explanation and illustration as the editor 
deems necessary to make them clear to the 
average mind. The Helps contain hints to 
the teacher concerning methods ; explana- 
tions that it was not thought advisable to in- 
troduce into the Topics; additional illustra- 
tions for students who need further help ; and 
examples and lists for reference. In accord- 
ance with this plan, the Topics may be used 
as a text-book; the Helps should be used 
only as a book of reference. 

Every paragraph in the Helps which re- 
fers to a paragraph in the Topics is num- 
bered with the number of the paragraph to 
which it refers. Those marked 1T do not 
refer to other paragraphs. 



HELPS. 



♦♦^ 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS, 



TO THE TEACHER. 

TT I. It should be strongly impressed upon the 
minds of all that to study grammar successfully we 
must study the language itself. Neither the teacher 
nor the text-book should serve as more than a guide. 
We must cultivate the habit of observing the facts of 
language as displayed in the utterances of approved 
writers and correct speakers. We must acquire 
facility in thinking, each for himself. 

IT II. In accordance with the most approved theories, the 
sensible teacher of botany encourages her pupils to go 
abroad to seek for themselves specimens for study. A 
similar course is equally incumbent upon the teacher of 
grammar. And the text-book of grammar should contain 
only the few illustrations necessary to guide the pupil to 
the broader field. It should be understood, then, that the 
illustrations inserted in the Helps are few because they are 
intended to be only helps to something more, not final sub- 
jects for the pupil's study. 

4 [73] 



74 HELPS. 

To the Teacher. 

IT III. It must not be supposed that because a pupil has 
mastered a grammar, he will therefore have become a cor- 
rect speaker. We have said that a person becomes a cor- 
rect speaker through habit. A knowledge of grammar 
aids one in preserving the habit ; but the study of technical 
grammar helps but very little in acquiring it. The habit is 
to be acquired chiefly through imitation. 

The teacher's part is to use language worthy of the 
pupil's imitation, to lead the pupil to observe and avoid the 
errors made by others, and to require him to correct his 
own. Special exercises should be devoted to such instruc- 
tion at proper times. But it is far more important that this 
instruction should accompany that given in every subject, 
and from the very first. Indeed, from the time the child 
begins to talk, every occasion for using language of his 
own should be made an occasion for forming the habit of 
using correct language. 

IF IV. Recitations and Study. Prepare yourself thor- 
oughly for each recitation. It is not enough merely to 
"know the lesson.'' Thorough preparation implies much 
thought ; and implies readiness in asking questions to test 
the pupil's knowledge. 

Recitations in grammar are recitations on language ; 
therefore keep the language clearly before the pupil. To do 
this, the example recited upon should be written on the 
board by the pupil himself, and the words to be studied 
should be underlined. 

At first, for one lesson assign only one topic. Require 
the pupil to read the topic carefully, again and again, until 
he understands it. 



HELPS, 75 

To the Teacher. 



Require him to furnish for his recitation new examples 
illustrating the fact to be presented. Have him show by- 
reciting upon his new examples whether he understands 
the principle they illustrate. Ask questions. 

When the pupil shows himself familiar with the exam- 
ples found in the book require him to select illustrations 
from the writings of approved authors. 

Then let him have much practice in composing original 
examples. 

He thus learns principles through applying them. 

Do not hope that familiarity with a principle is to be 
acquired through u learning by rote." The final test of a 
pupil's acquaintance with a principle is not the glibness 
with which he can repeat the words in the book, but the 
readiness and the accuracy with which he can apply the 
principle, as shown by his facility in selecting and origin- 
ating and explaining illustrations. 

The pupil should give reasons for every conclusion he 
states. This is imperative. And his statement of rea- 
sons ought invariably to precede the statement of his con- 
clusion: For example, he should not say, speaking of a 
given word, it is a subject because it represents that of 
which something is said. But he should say, it represents 
that of which something is said, and therefore it is a sub- 
ject. This practice of stating reasons in advance cannot 
be too strongly insisted upon. 

As a rule, the course we have indicated should be pur- 
sued with each topic separately. In reviewing a chapter, be 
careful not only to have the pupil understand each separate 



76 HELPS. 

To the Teacher. 

topic, but also to have him perceive the relation of the 
several topics to one another and to the whole subject 
treated in the chapter. After reviewing a chapter the pupil 
should be able to state the plan of it. 

On no account proceed to a new topic until the pupil 
thoroughly understands the topics already studied. 

Pupils who are not intelligent enough to pursue such a 
course should not study grammar, no matter what their 
age may be. 



helps. yj 



ON THE 

DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR. 

, Remark. — The study of the TOPICS should begin with 
the first chapter. Indeed, the student should not attempt 
any chapter until he has become familiar with the topics 
which precede. 

1-2. In studying language we may gain a knowledge of the 
derivation and history of words and roots of words. Such 
knowledge is Etymology. Or we may acquire a knowledge of 
the formation of letters and the spelling of words, a knowledge 
sometimes called Orthography. Or we may learn the pronunci- 
ation of words and so know Orthoepy. We may, in studying 
language, gain a knowledge of the right use of language, by 
some called Rhetoric. Or we may study language with still 
other objects in view, and thus acquire knowledge of other 
^branches of the subject. If we would make a scientific study 
of any one branch of the science of language, we shall need to 
guard against encroaching upon any other branch. One con- 
venient way to avoid trespassing upon foreign province in study- 
ing a given science is to have the ground we wish to cover 
clearly marked out and its extent limited. In other words, we 
should define our subject. It is with this object that we begin 
our study by defining grammar. 

1, e. In defining grammar the term relations is used in 
the technical sense. The technical terms used in this book 
should be interpreted technically. 

2, g. This definition of grammar is not the definition 
commonly given. Yet it will be found to be serviceable 



78 HELPS. 

The Subject : Exercises. 

and not inaccurate. According to this definition, the ob- 
ject of studying grammar is to acquire a classified knowl- 
edge of the relations of words and of the forms words take 
in their various relations. This implies, of course, a 
knowledge of correct expression, and, in fact, of many- 
other things. 



THE SUBJECT. 

(See Topics, p. 14.) 

3 a. Many persons make the mistake of saying that the 
subject, in grammar, is " that of which something is said." 
That of which something is said is always an object of 
thought, and must be distinguished from the word which 
represents an object of thought. 

(The paragraphs marked 1 do not refer to particular Topics.) 

% This distinction between words and the objects 
words represent must be kept in mind, not only in 
this connection, but throughout the study of gram- 
mar. 

3, c. The term complement is a convenient one to 
apply to the word or words which, together with the bare 
subject, make up the complete subject. The same word, 
complement, is used to name corresponding parts of predi- 
cates and 'attributes. 



HELPS. 79 

The Subject : Exercises. 

Exercises. 

IT The editor wishes to repeat that in inserting a few ex- 
amples under this topic and following topics, his object is to 
furnish helps. But the pupil's study must not cease here. 
With the experience acquired in studying the examples 
found in the book, he will be able to look outside for fur- 
ther illustrations. 



Examples of the Subject. 

(Exercises on succeeding pages contain many examples of the Subject.) 

% At first point out both the complete and the bare 
subject. But after a time it will be found more con- 
venient, in using the term subject, to designate the 
bare subject. 

1 . Elms grew on the lawn. 

2. Stately elms grew on the lawn. 

3. Tall, stately elms grew on the lawn. 

4. Many tally stately elms grew on the lawn. 

5. Many tall, stately elms, graceful in outline and sym- 

metrical inform, grew on the lawn. 

6. Contributions to relieve the sufferers were sent in. 

7. In yonder cot, the village maiden kept her school. 

8. The wind rushes by, its howl is unheard. 

9. Nevertheless, strange stories got abroad. 

10. Early the next morning the battle was begun. 

11. How wonderfully are we made ! 

12. To relieve the poor is our duty. 

13. How the soul is connected with the body is a mys- 

tery. 



80 HELPS. 

The Subject : Recitation. 

Examples of a Recitation. 

IT This and following examples of recitations are given 
merely by way of suggestion. There are many ways of 
conducting recitations from which the teacher will, of 
course, select those most suited to her class in the different 
stages of the pupils' progress. The recitations should be 
quite complete at first, but later, may be much abbreviated. 

Extended Form. 

The y e s s e 1 was flying before the wind. 

I. Something is said by this expression concerning 
a vessel : the word vessel represents the object vessel, 
and therefore represents that of which something is 
said. This word may be described, then, as a part 
of the expression which represents that of which some- 
thing is said. According to our definition, such a 
part of an expression is the subject of the expression. 
The word vessel is therefore a subject. 

It is not of vessel, merely, that something is said, 
but of the vessel. We have learned that we may call 
the several words which together form a subject, a 
complete subject. The vessel, therefore, is the complete 
subject of the above expression, and vessel, the bare 
subject. 

It will be seen that the object of the recitation is to classify 
a certain part of the expression. The italicized words illustrate 
a way of applying a definition in such a case. 



HELPS. 8 1 

The Subject : Predicate. 

Abbreviated Form. 

II. Of this expression (above), the word vessel is a 
part which represents that of which something is 
said. Such a part of an expression is the subject, 
according to the definition : The subject of an ex- 
pression is that part, &c, &c. Vessel, the bare sub- 
ject, and the together form a complete subject. 



THE PREDICATE. 

(See Topics, p. 15.) 

Examples of the Predicate. 

(The Exercises on the Subject contain examples of the Predicate.) 

1. Tims flies. 

2. Time is flying. 

3. Time is swiftly flying. 

4. Time never ceased to fly. 

5. Flowers are peeping out everywhere. 

6. In the evening they went to the concert together. 

7. The duty of government is to protect persons and 

property. 
B. You have heard if I fought bravely. 

9. There the wicked cease from troubling. 

10. They made him laugh. 

11. His misfortune was to be born rich. 

12. Having been a benefactor to his race, this nobly 

generous man died. 

13. What is your reason for doing that? 

14. When does he propose to leave town ? 

15. Boys, come in out of the rain. 

4* 



82 HELPS. 

Attribute: Copula. 



attribute:: copuIjA. 

(See Topics, p. 16.) 

5, b. When the attribute is a noun, as in 
that metal is gold, 

it may not at first appear to indicate either a condi- 
tion or a quality. However, a noun names a set of 
qualities or conditions, and so may fairly become an 
attribute. 



Examples. 



1. The work is finished. 

2. His efforts were well rewarded. 

3. To be polite is to be kind in a courteous manner* 

4. He had grown to be quite eloquent. 

5. Man is mortal. 

6. The plant will become stunted. 

7. The sun seems to be rising. 

8. The moon will soon have been obscured one hour. 

9. The air grows damp and feels chilly. 

10. He is every inch a man. 

11. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

12. Your spirits are too bold for your years. 

13. Your brother is but young and tender. 

14. My master is a man of churlish disposition. 

15. The merchant might have become rich. 



HELPS. 83 

Proposition: Exercise. 

Eocainple of a Recitation. 
The patient will soon haye # become strong. 

a. Of this expression, the word patient is the sub- 
ject : will soon haye Jbecome strong is the predicate. 
The word strong is a part of the predicate, and indi- 
cates a condition of that represented by the subject. 
It is therefore an attribute, according to the defini- 
tion : The attribute of an expression is that part of 
the predicate which is used to indicate a condition or 
a quality of that represented by the subject. 

b. The attribute of the expression is connected 
with the subject by will soon haye become, which is a 
part of the predicate; therefore, will soon haye become 

is a copula, according to the definition : The copula 
of an expression is that part of the predicate which 
is used to connect the subject and the attribute. 

The words composing the copula are so closely combined 
that it is hardly possible to separate them, and say of any 
one, that it can be used alone as the copula of the expres- 
sion. So that the distinction of complete and bare predi- 
cate is not to be made. 



THE PROPOSITION. 

(See Topics, p. 17.) 

Exercise on the Proposition* 

IT I. Point out the subjects, predicates, attributes, copulas, 
and propositions. Bear in mind that a proposition must 



84 HELPS. 

Proposition : Exercise. 

combine both a subject and a predicate. Reasons before 
conclusions. 

" A boy's first night at school is usually not a time 
of mirth. The heart of the solitary little lad at 
Corston sank within him. A melancholy hung about 
the decayed mansion. It had once known better 
days. The broken gateways, the summer-houses 
fallen in ruins, the grass-grown court, the bleakness 
of the schoolroom, depressed the spirits. Southey's 
pillow was wet with tears before he fell asleep. The 
master of the school was at one with his surround- 
ings ; he, too, was a piece of worthy old humanity now 
decayed; he, too, was falling in untimely ruins. The 
work of the school fell into the hands of his son, 
Charley Flower. Both father and son knew the mys- 
tery of the flamboyant penmanship, but Southey's 
handwriting had not yet advanced to the decorative 
style. His spelling he could look back upon with 
pride." 

T II. It will be seen that the division of the proposition 
into Subject, Predicate, &c, is based upon the uses of 
those parts. 



HELPS. 85 



THE NOUN. 

(See Topics, p. 19.) 

10. The exercises given under the topics Subject, Predicate, 
and Proposition, contain many examples of the NOUN. 

IT I. In reciting, names are not to be given yet to the 
kinds of nouns nor to the kinds of words belonging to 
other classes. We are now making general divisions 
only. Reasons before conclusions. 

T II. By way of additional practice in identifying 
nouns the pupil may select any correctly written arti- 
cle and find all the nouns occurring in it, applying 
the definition to each one. He should continue this 
practice until he is able to identify nouns off-hand. 
It is of great importance that in every instance he 
should verify his choice. 



Example of a Hecitation. 

" Beneath a bony buttonwood, 

The mill's red door lets forth the din; 
The whitened miller, dust imbued, 
Flits past the square of dark within." 

1T III. First divide the propositions into subject and 
predicate ; do this always. Then : 

Buttonwood is a word which names an object of thought 
and which may be used as the subject of a proposition. It 
is therefore a noun, according to the definition : A noun is 
a word, &c, &c. 



86 HELPS. 

The Pronoun : Recitation, 



When the pupil says a certain word may be used as subject, if 
it does not happen to be so used, as in the case of buttonwood, 
above, he may compose a proposition in which the noun shall be 
used as subject. In such cases, moreover, the pupil should 
state, if possible, what is the relation of the word. In this in- 
stance he would continue, speaking of buttonwood ; 

It is not used either as subject or as attribute. 

But if the sentence read, 

that bony tree is a buttonwood, 

he would say : 

It, buttonwood, is here used as the attribute of a proposi- 
tion. 

And so on with mills, door, din y miller, square, dark, 

T IV. On no account should the pupil proceed to the 
next class of words until he is skilled in identifying words 
of the given class : this, if it requires a week, a fortnight, 
or a month. 



THE PRONOUN. 

(See Topics, p. 19.) 

11. The practice work on pronouns should be similar to 
that on nouns. It should consist in identifying pronouns 
and in applying the definition, and also in determining the 
relation in which any given pronoun is used ; but not yet in 
distinguishing kinds of pronouns. 



Example of a Hecitation. 

He lifted up his eyes. 

He is a word, not a noun, which is used instead of 
a noun. It is therefore a pronoun, according to the 



HELPS. 87 

The Pronoun : Exercise. 



definition : A pronoun is a word, &c, &c. It is not 
a noun since it does not name an object of thought. 
It is used instead of the noun— (the name of the per- 
son referred to). It is the subject of the proposition 
of which lifted up his eyes is predicate. 

It will be observed that these statements are all suggested by 
the definition of a pronoun. 

If I. On no account should the student proceed to the 
next class of words until he is skilled in identifying words 
of the given class, and of classes previously studied. 

Exercise on the Pronoun. 

Point out both the nouns and the pronouns. The pupil 
may continue giving full reasons for his selections of words ; 
this, until he is perfectly familiar with the classes of words. 
No mention (yet) of kinds of nouns or pronouns. 

Mother said she would propose a plan. Her mind 
had long been made up to take the children on their 
anticipated trip. They had begged to be taken for a 
sail up the Hudson. So, after consulting father, 
mother laid the plan before the children themselves 
and suggested the following Wednesday for a holiday 
on the river. The girls danced with delight, and 
each of the boys thought himself the happiest body 
in the world. Father said he would arrange his busi- 
ness so that it should take care of itself for one day, 
come whatever would. This almost made us cry for 
joy, because we very seldom have mother and father 
together to share the pleasure of our merry holidays. 
I don't know which of the children was most eager* 



88 HELPS. 

The Adjective : Limiting words. 

Martha was really quite beside herself. Even Jip 
knew something unusual was going on, for he was 
jealous and seemed to say, " You do not take much 
notice of me." 

On the appointed morning we were all awake by 
the time the sun showed his face. Mother had said, 
" Rest yourselves well, and do not get up until seven." 
But who could lie abed on such a morning ! 



LIMITING WORDS. 

(See Topics, pp. 19, 20.) 

12, a. Words limit one another in many ways. 
Much practice should be had in applying the defini- 
tion of " to limit or restrict " before going on with 
adjectives. 

Exercise. 

" Milton was, like Dante, a statesman and a lover ; and, 
like Dante, he had been unfortunate in ambition and in 
love. He had survived his health and his sight, the com- 
forts of his home, and the prosperity of his party. 

Only several of the limiting words are italicized. The pupil 
may, in each case, point out the word limited. Of his party 
illustrates the fact that several words may together limit another 
word. 



Example of a Recitation* 

When we say, simply, he had survived, we do not 
make a particularly definite application of survived. 



HELPS. 89 

The Adjective : Exercise. 

But by connecting comforts with survived, a survival 
from some definite loss is indicated, and we are led to 
apply the term survived more definitely. Comforts, 
then, may be described as a word which is so used 
with another word as to lead us to make a more 
definite application of that word. It is therefore a 
limiting word, according to the definition : A word 
limits or restricts another word when it is so used, 
&c, &c. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

(See Topics, p. 20.) 

12, d. Bear in mind that an adjective 

(1) is not 'a noun; 

(2) is not a pronoun ; 

(3) and may be placed directly before a noun to 

limit it. 

T In reciting, the reasons should be stated why a 
given adjective is neither a noun nor a pronoun. 

If in a given instance it happens that the adjective is not 
placed directly before a noun, but follows it, or is used as 
attribute or to limit a noun understood, the fact should be 
stated. 

Exercise. 

From my study I see in the lamplight, 

Descending the broad hall stair 
Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra, 

And Edith with golden hair. 



90 HELPS. 

The Verb : Hints. 



A whisper and then a silence : 
Yet I know by their merry eyes, 

They are plotting and planning together 
To take me by surprise. 

A sudden rush from the stairway, 
A sudden raid from the hall ! 

By three doors left unguarded, 
They enter my castle wall ! 

They climb up into my turret, 

O'er the arms and back of my chair; 

If I try to escape they surround me ; 
They seem to be everywhere. 

— Longfellow. 



THE VERB. 

(See Topics, p. 21.) 

13, a-b. On no account should the next topic be 
considered until the pupil is ready in distinguishing 
Terbs. It need hardly be suggested that the exercises 
should be continued on the classes of words already 
studied. 

IT At present the work should still consist mainly in learn- 
ing to identify verbs by applying the definitions. In study- 
ing verbs, a course may be pursued similar to that suggested 
for the classes previously studied. The exercises under 
preceding topics contain many examples of verbs, with and 
without objects. Keep clearly in mind the definition of the 
class of words to be studied. And do not confound verb 
phrases with verbs. 



HELPS. 91 

The Adverb : Examples. 

THE ADVERB. 

(See Topics, p. 23.) 

14, C. The use of the adverb almost in so many ways illus- 
trates the principle that the class-membership of a word is not 
determined by means of the number of its possible relations, but 
by the one or the several characteristic relations in which the 
word may be used. Adverbs are pre-eminently limiting words, 
and as such may limit almost all the kinds of words in various 
ways, so that it would be fatal to a definition of an adverb to 
include a statement of all those uses, or of any more of them 
than are really distinguishing uses. A definition is a limitation. 
A description may be limited or unlimited according to the pur- 
pose of the describer. Both are useful in study. But defini- 
tions and descriptions must not be made to do exchange duty. 

IT In those cases in which a given adverb is not used to 
limit either an adjective or a verb, the pupil should com- 
pose expressions containing the adverb used in one of those 
ways. 



Examples of the Adverb. 

(For Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs, see p. 93.) 

i. The horse grew quite thin. 

2. The snowflakes fell slowly to the ground. 

3. The king scowled ominously. 

4. The rain was falling fast. 

5. It is natural to the deer to move gracefully, 

6. He leaped far beyond the mark. 



92 HELPS. 

The Preposition : Conjunction. 



THE PREPOSITION, 

(See Topics, p. 25.) 

15. In his practice exercises the pupil now has six kinds 
of words to talk about. And in his descriptions he will, 
when occasion requires, now have to mention, besides 
other relations, the relation of an object of a verb and that 
of an object of a preposition, 

IT The illustrations, under preceding topics, contain numer- 
ous examples of the preposition and the object of a preposi- 
tion. Keep the definition in mind : prepositions connect 
words. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

(See Topics, p. 26.) 

16, d. The pupil will discover that it is often necessary to 
supply understood parts when explaining the uses of con- 
junctions. 

Tf In distinguishing between conjunctions and prepositions, and 
between conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, it should be kept 
in mind that the class-membership of words is determined by 
their relations to the proposition. (See p. 27, par. 19.) 



Examples of the Conjunction. 

1. The sun shone into my room and I was waked by his 

beams. 

2. The winds blew but the house stood firm. 

3. You may come to us or we will go to you. 

4. The vase fell from the mantel yet was not broken. 



HELPS. 93 

The Participle : Examples. 

Examples of the Conjunctive Adverb. 

(See also under the Topic Propositions, p. 103.) 

1. They cannot go while I am away. 

2. Never two ladies loved as they do. 

3. The stag at eve had drunk his fill 

Where danced the moon on Monan's rill. 

4. So still he sate as those who wait 

Till judgment speake the doom of fate. 

5. Do you love him because I do ? 

6. He died a patriot's death after he had fought 

bravely for his country. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 

(See Topics, p. 27.) 

17. Occasionally pupils find it difficult, in the case of 
some particular word, to determine whether it is a participle 
or an adjective. In such cases, carefully recall the two defi- 
nitions. If a word, though like a participle in other re- 
spects, may, without change of meaning or sacrifice of 'sense \ 
be actually placed, and used, before the noun or pronoun 
limited, it is included under the definition of an adjective, 
and is an adjective. While a word that is really an adjective 
cannot reasonably be included under the definition of a par- 
ticiple ; because the definition of a participle would have a 
word merely " partake of the nature of an adjective.'' (See 
recitation, p. 94.) 



94 HELPS. 

The Participle : Examples. 

Examples of the Participle* 

1. The windows rattling in their frames, 

The ocean roaring on the beach, 
The gusty blast, the bickering flames, 
All mingled vaguely in our speech. 

2. Waste not a sigh on fortune changed. 

3. All nature's children feel the matin spring 

Of life reviving with reviving day. 

4. There is no flock however watched and tended, 

But one dead lamb is there. 

5. Two good friends had Hiawatha, 
Singled out from all the others, 
Bound to him in closest union. 

6. There was a stir and a sound in the slumbering 

village of Plymouth ; 
Clanking and clicking of arms, and the order 

imperative, " Forward ! " 
Given in tone suppressed. 



Example of a Mediation. 

They set him free without his ransom paid* 

Paid is a word derived from a verb and partaking of 
the nature of a verb and of an adjective. It is there- 
fore a participle, according to the definition: A par- 
ticiple is a word, &c, &c. It is derived from the 
verb pay. It is like a verb, because it may be limited 
adverbially in the way in which a verb is limited; for 
instance, we might say, 

without his ransom paid in full, 



HELPS. 95 

The Infinitive. 

in which case in full limits paid adverbially. Paid 
partakes of the nature of an adjective in limiting a 
noun, ransom, a relation characteristic of adjectives. 

IT This example illustrates the difference between a par- 
ticiple and an adjective. As the expression reads, we are 
led to understand that a person was given his liberty without 
the paying of a ransom. But, if the expression should read, 

he was set free without his paid ransom, 

we might understand that the person paid a ransom, and 
that it was not returned when he was set free ; or that he 
had had in his possession a paid ransom, which, however, 
was taken away from him, and he was sent away without it. 
We say, then, that paid in the original expression is a 
participle ; and that it is not an adjective, because it can- 
not, without change of meaning, be placed before the noun 
to limit it. 



the: infinitive. 

(See Topics, p. 27.) 

18, a. In this description the infinitive is shown to 
be like a noun in being used as the object of a prepo- 
sition. Nouns, however, are used in other common 
relations besides that of object of a preposition ; for 
example, as subject, as object of a participle, as 
object of a verb. So with infinitives : they may be 
used in all these relations, and, therefore, in all these 
respects may partake of the nature of a noun. 

IF I. Let the student carefully compare the definition of 
an infinitive with that of a participle, and carefully consider 



96 HELPS. 

The Infinitive. 



the various ways in which nouns and adjectives may be 
used. He will then be able to distinguish readily between 
infinitives and participles, and to recognize readily the simi- 
larity of infinitives to nouns, and of participles to adjec- 
tives. 

T II. The following propositions all contain infinitives 
used as the object of a verb. The student should compose 
propositions containing infinitives used in the other rela- 
tions mentioned. 

I will go (meaning practically, I will the act 
of going), 

do wait (do the act of waiting), 

begin writing, 

let me jump, 

make him laugh, 

compel him to laugh, 

they intend starting to-morrow, 

they intend to start, 

he prefers riding, 

he chooses to ride, 

she can sew, 

you should stop. 

% III. Some of these examples illustrate still 
another important fact. The " word " to, where it oc- 
curs in these expressions, cannot be assigned any 
meaning. It has not any meaning. It is therefore 
not a word at all. It is a mere sign which custom re- 
quires us to employ with some infinitives and to omit 
with others, and permits us to employ or omit as we 
please with still others. 

1T IV. Nevertheless to when it is a word may have an 
infinitive for an object, as in 



HELPS, 97 

The Infinitive : Examples. 

I waited to s e e you. 

Here to actually has a meaning, being equivalent to in 
order to, and it is a word. It is a preposition. See is its 
object, and is an infinitive. 



Examples of the Infinitive. 

1. He chose to sit there. 

2. Let me see it. 

3. They must do their duty. 

4. How can they fly without wings ? 

5. What would you think of me ? 

6. I enjoy inhaling the crisp air. 

7. The king seems desirous of advancing the interests of his 

country. 

8. She is determined to try the remedy. 

9. They were endeavoring to induce him to arrange a pro- 

gram. 

10. The rattling of musketry is said to cause horses to grow 

restive. 

11. To be independent is with many persons to be unscrupu- 

lous. 

12. Now I do frown on thee with all my heart. 

13. I have more cause to hate him than to love him. 

14. Perchance the maiden smiled to see 
Yon parting lingerer wave adieu, 
And stop and turn to wave anew. 

15. Let me remember thee. 

16. I am not taught to make anything. 

17. I did find him still mine enemy. 

18. Let us go thank him and encourage him. 

19. What else may hap to time I will commit. 

20. It shall become thee well to act my woes. 

5 



98 HELPS. 

The Infinitive: Recitation. 



Eocample of a ^Recitation. 
We are going to try reading him to sleep • 
Eeading is a word derived from a verb and partaking 
of the nature of a verb and of a noun. It is there- 
fore an infinitive, according to the definition : An in- 
finitive is a word, &c, &c. It is derived from the 
verb read. It partakes of the nature of a verb in 
taking an object, him. It is the object of an infinitive 
(try), and in that respect is like a noun, nouns being 
often used as object. 

Remark. — The pupil must persevere in applying 
the definitions and the principles, each one separately, 
again and again. But the object must not be to be- 
come glib in repeating definitions and statements of 
principles. Our aim should be to know the facts 
stated in definitions and to know principles j in short, 
to know English grammar. 



HELPS. 99 



PROPOSITIONS. 

(See Topics, pp. 29-35.) 



23. The process of dividing a proposition into its 
parts is called analysis. An analysis should gener- 
ally be accompanied with descriptions of the various 
parts. The analysis of a proposition may follow 
some such order as the following : 

i. Declarative? 2. Simple? 

Interrogative? Compound ? 

Imperative? Complex? 

3. If simple : 

Subject ? Predicate ? Phrases ? 

4. If compound: 

Clauses ? Why called independent ? 
Analyze the clauses : 

Subject ? Predicate ? Phrases ? 

5. If complex : 

Clauses : Why called principal and subordinate ? 
Analyze the clauses : 

Subject? Predicate? Phrases? 

IF If a clause is used substantively, adjectively, or ad- 
verbially, the fact should be mentioned. Reasons before 
conclusions. 



IOO HELPS. 

Propositions : Recitation. 

Example of a Recitation* 

This recitation is not complete. It is intended to show espe- 
cially a way of distinguishing a proposition. 

You now perceive what the trouble is. 

This is a declarative sentence. It contains two proposi- 
tions, 

you now perceive, and 
what the trouble is. 

The latter is used to limit the former by serving- as object to 
the verb of the former. The former, then, is a principal 
proposition ; the latter, a subordinate ; and the whole ex- 
pression is a complex proposition, the subject of which is 
you, and the complete predicate, now perceive what the 
trouble is. 

The subject of the subordinate proposition is trouble $ 
the predicate (complete), is what. 

We have said that what the trouble is is the object of a 
verb : in that respect it is like a noun, and is therefore a 
substantive clause. 



Examples of the Direct and the Indirect Object. 

(See Topics, p. 32, a.) 

1. We paid the men their wages. 

2. Let me see. 

3. Let us forgive them their debts. 

4. I'll give thy harp heroic theme. 

5. Experience has taught men many severe lessons. 

6. Her mother was engaged that moment in teaching her 

music. 

7. I was asking the gentleman his name. 



HELPS. IOI 

Propositions : Exercise. 

Examples of Propositions 9 Clauses 9 and Phrases* 

i. Delays are dangerous. 

2. The gentle rain refreshes the thirsty flowers. 

3. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

4. These are suggestions of a mind at ease. 

5. My master is of churlish disposition. 

6. A great cause of the night is lack of the sun. 

7. It was the deep midnoon. 

S. I thank thee for thy love to me. 

9. Spinning tops is a favorite amusement with boys. 

10. To preach is not to practice. 

1 1 . Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain. 

12. His father left him well off. 

13. From peak to peak the rattling crags among 
Leaps the live thunder. 

14. Now I do frown on thee with all my heart. 

15. He is said to have been a very ingenious youth. 

16. Men have died from time to time. 

17. They danced themselves out of breath. 

18. I have enough money for the present. 

19. Disgusted by his discreditable acts, nearly all the man's 

friends deserted him. 

20. You have done very well on the whole. 

21. Having collected his army, Hannibal began his march. 

22. Wilt take thy chance with me ? 

23. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

1. Now came still evening in, and twilight gray 
Had in her silver livery all things clad. 

2. Revenge is an act of passion ; vengeance, of justice. 1 

3. Puss is still living and has just completed his ninth year. 



I02 HELPS. 

Propositions : Exercise. 

4. O'er rough and smooth she trips along and never looks 

behind. 

5. The day is cold and dark and dreary ; 
It rains and the wind is never weary. 

6. The sea hath its pearls, the heaven hath its stars, but 

my heart hath its love. 

7. The familiar seems trivial, and only the distant and 

unknown completely fill and satisfy the mind. 

8. Either you or he must go. 

9. You have the power to command, nevertheless I will 

not come. 
10. In the process of ordinary distillation, the liquid to be 
distilled is heated and converted into vapor in one 
vessel, and chilled and re-converted into liquor in 
another. 

1. Though the deep between us rolls, 
Friendship shall unite our souls. 

2. His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 

3. There have been holy men who hid themselves 
Deep in the woody wilderness, and gave 
Their lives to thought and prayer. 

4. Come, sir, here's the place. 

5. My heart leaps up when I behold 
A rainbow in the sky. 

6. The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by, 
Because my feet find measure with its call. 

7. I'm a careless potato and care not a pin 
How into existence I came. 

8. As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man. 

9. Whate'er the motive, pleasure is the mark. 

10. Up guards ! and at them ! 

11. I ask you : are you innocent or guilty ? 



HELPS. IO3 

General Exercises. 

12. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

13. The good that men do lives after them. 

14. All that I dread is leaving you behind. 

15. Those that think must govern those that toil. 

16. They never fail who die in a just cause. 

17. He did what was required of him. 
i8 % Thou see'st I am calm. 

19. When icicles hang by the wall, 

And Dick the shepherd blows his nail, 
And Tom bears logs into the hall, 

And milk comes frozen home in pail ; 
When blood is nipp'd, and ways be foul, 
Then nightly sings the staring owl, 
To-who. 



Exercises in Distinguishing Propositions, 
Clauses, Phrases, and Words. 

I. 
Once, when the weather was very dry, a thirsty 
crow searched everywhere for water, but she could 
not find a drop. While she was croaking for sorrow, 
she spied a jug. Down she flew at once, and eagerly 
pushed in her bill ; but it was of no use. There was 
plenty of water in the jug, but she could not reach it, 
because the neck of the vessel was too narrow. After 
she had tried in vain for half an hour to reach the 
water, she next attempted to tip the jug over ; but it 
was too heavy for her, and she could not stir it. Just 
when she was on the point of giving up in despair, a 



104 HELPS. 

General Exercises. 



new thought struck her. " If," said she, " I drop 
some stones into the jug, the water will rise higher, 
and in time it will rise up to my bill." Immediately, 
though she was nearly fainting with thirst, she brave- 
ly set to work. As each stone fell, the water rose ; 
and before half an hour had passed, the clever crow 
had quite quenched her thirst. 

II. 

The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante, as 
the hieroglyphics of Egypt differed from the picture- 
writing of Mexico. The images which Dante em- 
ploys speak for themselves: — they stand simply for 
what they are. Those of Milton have a signification 
which is often discernible only to the initiated. Their 
value depends less on what they directly represent, 
than on what they remotely suggest. However 
strange, however grotesque, may be the appearance 
which Dante undertakes to describe, he never shrinks 
from describing it. He gives us the shape, the color, 
the sound, the smell, the taste; he counts the num- 
bers; he measures the size. His similes are the illus- 
trations of a traveller. Unlike those of other poets, 
and especially of Milton, they are introduced in a 
plain, business-like manner; not for the sake of any 
beauty in the objects from which they are drawn, not 
for the sake of any ornament which they may impart 
to the poem, but simply in order to make the mean- 
ing of the writer as clear to the reader as it is to 
himself. 



HELPS. I05 



THE CLASSES SEPARATELY STUDIED. 



KOTOS: PROPEKTIES. 

(See Topics, pp. 36-48.) 

Remark. — Up to this point, our work in connection with 
nouns, and with the other classes, has consisted merely in iden- 
tifying words as members of classes. Now, the classes of words 
are to be studied separately, and we are to learn of. the kinds 
and properties of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, &c, and of the 
rules governing the use of the various forms of words. 

37. As each new fact is learned concerning nouns or any 
other class of words, the pupil in reciting should enlarge 
his descriptions accordingly. In describing a noun, he will 
now have to mention, besides other things, the number of 
the noun. 

41-47- One can best learn by observation concerning the 
formation of plurals. Much information on the subject of 
irregular plurals and kindred subjects is to be obtained in 
the dictionaries, and in the encyclopedias of grammar. As 
occasions present, reviews upon irregular forms will be 
found practicable. (See the Lists, pp. 1 21-31.) 

48. For exercises in genders and gender equivalents, the 
lists at the end of the book may be used. 

ON THE DEFINITION OF CASES. 

Every word when used at all in a proposition, is used in some re- 
lation. So with every form of any word. Hence there arises the 
danger of misapplying the definition of cases, and assuming that 

5* 1 



106 HELPS. 

Nouns : Parsing. 

every word and every form of a word is a case. This danger 
may be easily avoided by keeping in mind the distinction be- 
tween using a word in a certain relation, and using a form on 
account of a certain relation. Thus, in 

the hero saved the heroine's life, 
the nominative hero and the possessive heroine's are employed on 
account of the relation in which they are used respectively. It 
would be obviously incorrect to use the possessive form of hero 
in the relation in which the word hero is used, and the nomina- 
tive heroine for the relation of heroine's, saying, 
the hero's saved the heroine life. 

But it would not be grammatically incorrect to interchange 
hero and heroine as genders, saying, 

the heroine saved the hero's life ; 

for a gender indicates a sex as a mere fact, and genders are not 
used on account ^/grammatical relations. 

In like manner, comparing cases with numbers, tenses, and 
other forms, it may be shown that only cases are used on account 
of certain grammatical relations. 



ON THE PARSING OF WORDS, 

IT I. Analysis, we have seen (p. 99), consists in 
dividing a proposition into its parts and describing 
those parts as such. But we may describe words as 
members of classes. To describe a word in this way 
is to parse it. 

IT II. It is presumed that the pupil has had practice in 
applying each new principle at the time it was taught. So 
that in giving a full description of a noun he will have a 
number of facts to observe and mention. 



HELPS. I07 

Nouns : Parsing. 

TT III. The following list and example of parsing are given 
"by way of suggestion merely. It will be observed that the first 
few lines repeat in substance a recitation given under the defini- 
tion of a noun. The repetition is made simply for the sake of 
completeness. 



On the Parsing of Nouns. 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Number. 

4. Gender. 

5. The noun's relation: 

6. Case. 

7. Rule for construction. 

8. Remarks. 

Example : 

There lives more faith in honest doubt, 
Believe me, than in half the creeds, 

First, more or less extended analysis. Then: 

Creeds is a word which names an object of thought 
and which may be used as the subject of a proposi- 
tion. It is therefore a noun, according to the defini- 
tion : A noun is a word which names an object of 
thought and which may be used as the subject of a 
proposition. It is a plural number and has no gen- 
der. It is the object of the preposition of under- 
stood, and is in the nominative case, according to the 
rule : A noun used as the object of a preposition 
must be in the nominative case. 



108 HELPS. 

Pronouns: Parsing. 

(Remark.) We may consider the words half the creeds 

intimately enough connected to compose a phrase, and to 
be as such the object of the preposition in. 

IF IV. The pupil, for a time, should state his reasons for 
saying a word is of one gender or another, or of a certain 
number or case. He should never make a statement he 
does not understand and cannot verify. 

IF V. When the pupil has become familiar with the 
principles taught, it will not be necessary for him to make 
the parsing so complete. In fact, he should then abbrevi- 
ate, so that his time and attention may be more fully occu- 
pied with new subjects. 

The following is an abbreviated form of the foregoing exam- 
ple of parsing : 

Creeds is a noun of the plural number, in the 
nominative case, and is the object of a preposition. 
With half and the it forms a phrase, half the creeds, 
which is object of the preposition in. 



pronouns: properties. 

(See Topics, pp. 50-55.) 

66, C. Because we say that pronouns have persons, num- 
bers, genders, and cases, it must not be inferred that every 
pronoun has all of these properties. A little thought will 
lead to the opposite conclusion. The term pronouns is 
applied to the class pronouns. (See Topics, par. 38.) 



HELPS. IO9 

Pronouns : Parsing. 

On the Parsing of Pronouns. 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Person. 4. Number. 5. Gender. 

6. The pronoun's relation: 

7. Case. 8. Rule for construction. 

9. Antecedent. 10. Rule for agreement. 
11. Remarks. 

Example : 

Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done. 

First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 

Thy is a word, not a noun, used instead of a noun.'. 
It is therefore a pronoun, according to the definition: 
A pronoun is a word, &c, &c. It is of the second 
person, singular number ; it has no gender. It is 
used to denote possession (in a certain sense) and is 
in the possessive case, according to the rule : A pro- 
noun used to limit by denoting possession, &c, &c. 

The antecedent of thy is huntsman, with which it 
agrees in number. Rule : A pronoun must agree 
with its antecedent, &c, &c 

(Remarks.) Thy here limits the noun chase. Hunts- 
man has gender, but thy has not ; hence these words can 
not agree in gender. Thy is a possessive pronoun for 
which thine is sometimes used as an equivalent. 



HO HELPS. 

Adjectives: Parsing. 

ADJECTIVES: PARSING. 

(See Topics, pp. 56-58.) 

81. It is not proper in speaking of the forms of an adjec- 
tive, say noble* nobler* noblest* to call one a positive 
degree, another a comparative degree, and the third a super- 
lative degree. 



On the Parsing of Adjectives. 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Number (when the adjective has number). 

4. Comparison. 

5. Relation. 

6. Remarks. 



Example 



Affliction, when I know it, is but this : 
A deep alloy whereby man tougher is. 

First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 

Tougher is a word, neither noun nor pronoun, 
which may be placed directly before a noun to limit 
it. It is therefore an adjective, according to the 
definition : An adjective is a word, &c, &c. Tougher 
is the comparative form (not comparative degree) of 
the adjective tough, the superlative form of which is 
toughest. It is used here as the attribute of the 
proposition, 

* * man is tougher, 
and limits the noun man. We may say it limits some 



HELPS. 1 1 1 

Verbs : Parsing. 

noun as person* or body, understood. That noun 
would then be attribute of the proposition, and 
tougher merely a limiting word. (Remark.) It is 
proper to say more tough and most tough. 

% At the proper time the pupil may abbreviate j for 
example : 

Abbreviated Form. 

Tougher (above) is an adjective of the comparative 
form. The positive form is tough ; superlative, tough- 
est. This adjective is used as attribute of the propo- 
sition, 

* * man is tougher. 

Or we may describe it as limiting a noun understood, 
as person, which would in that case be the attribute. 



VERBS : PARSING. 

(See Topics, pp. 59-65.) 

90* For lists of irregular verbs see the end of the book. 
For remarks on the disposition of verb phrases, see pp. 117- 
20. 



On the Parsing of Verbs* 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Person. 4. Number. 5. Tense. 
6. Subject: 7. Agreement (Rule). 

8 Use— \ ! rans -( ? )> ob J ect - 
( intrans. 

9. Remarks. 



1 1 2 HELPS. 

Adverbs: Parsing. 

^Example : 

High in his pathway hung the sun. 

First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 

Hung is a word used as the predicate of a proposi- 
tion. It is therefore a verb, according to the defini- 
tion : A verb is a word, &c, &c. Hung is not a per- 
son nor a number. It is of the past tense. Its subject 
is sun. But, not having either a person or a number, 
hung does not agree with sun. The verb is here used 
intransitively and consequently does not have an ob- 
ject. The simple form of the present tense of this 
Terb is hang. 

1" In those cases in which the verb is combined 
with a number of other words to form a verb phrase, 
the pupil should make mention of the fact. (See 
pp. ir7-2o.) 



ADVERBS. 

(See Topics, p. 66.) 

On the Parsing of Adverbs, 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Comparison. 

4. Actual relation. 

5. Kind of adverb (why ?). If conjunctive: prop- 

ositions connected. 

6. Remarks. 

Some of the irregularly compared adverbs will be found on 
p. 125. 



HELPS. II3 

Prepositions : Conjunctions. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

(See Topics, p. 25.) 

On the Parsing of Prepositions. 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Words connected. 

4. Object of preposition. 

5. Remarks. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

(See Topics, p. 67.) 

On the Parsing of Conjunctions* 

ORDER. 

1. Distinguishing qualities. 

2. Definition. 

3. Propositions connected. 

4. Kind of conjunction. 

5. Remarks. 

Tf It was stated in the Topics, under adverbs, that the " rules " 
for the use of adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions were pur- 
posely omitted. We will select the " rules " for these classes of 
words as given in one of the grammars, and will use them in 
justifying their omission from this book : 

An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb. 

A Preposition shows the relation of an object (object?) to 
some other (other?) word on which the adjunct depends. 

A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sen- 
tences. 



114 HELPS. 

Participles: Parsing. 



In the first place, these statements are not rules. The rules 
to be found in this work are imperative statements of a pre- 
scribed course to be observed in using certain words and cer- 
tain forms. A rule should affirm that so and so must be or 
j/iouldbe, &c, &c. 

Again, we have learned that adverbs may limit other words 
than verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The "rule," then, is mis- 
leading. 

Further, it is true that prepositions indicate the relations of 
the objects denoted by the words connected. But the relations 
of objects to one another are not grammatical relations and need 
not be mentioned in a grammar. We may say with propriety 
that prepositions indicate the relations to each other of the words 
they connect, but the statement of the fact is not a rule, and is 
not of first importance. 

Lastly, in our definition we say that conjunctions connect 
propositions; so that there is no need of any "rule" to call 
attention to that fact. 



PARTICIPLES: PARSING. 

(See Topics, pp. 68, 69.) 

On the Parsing of Tarticiples. 

Since pupils find participles and infinitives more difficult 
to understand than other kinds of words, the work upon 
these subjects should be made very thorough. 

ORDER. 

( deriv. from verb. 

1. Distinguishing qualities \ nat. of a verb. 

( nat. of an adj. 

2. Definition. 

3. Verb from which derived. 



HELPS. II5 

Participles: Parsing. 

4. Respect in which similar to a verb. 

5. Respect in which similar to an adjective. 

6. Principal parts of corresponding verb. 

7. Remarks. 



Example 



From the steep promontory gazed 
The stranger, raptured and amazed. 



First, more or less complete analysis. Then : 

Eaptured is a word derived from a verb and par- 
taking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 
It is therefore a participle, according to the defi- 
nition: A participle is a word, &c, &c. It is de- 
rived from the verb rapture. It partakes of the na- 
ture of a verb because it may be limited by an adverb 
as a verb is limited. It partakes of the nature of an 
adjective in limiting adjectively stranger, a noun. It 
is a regular perfect participle. The principal parts of 
the corresponding verb are rapture, and raptured. 

Remark. — It may be said, also, that the relation of rap- 
tured to stranger is similar to that of a noun in apposition 
with another noun. It may therefore be said to limit 
stranger appositively. That relation of the participle is not 
inconsistent with the definition, which declares the partici- 
ple to be like an adjective; because the relation of apposi- 
tion, though common with nouns, is really not a substan- 
tive relation, but adjectival. 

IT When the participle is part of a phrase the fact should 
be noted. 



Il6 HELPS. 

Infinitives: Parsing. 

INFINITIVES: PARSING. 

(See Topics, p. 70.) 

On the Parsing of Infinitives. 

ORDER. 

( deriv. from verb. 

1. Distinguishing qualities •< nat. of a verb. 

( nat. of a noun. 

2. Definition. 

3. Verb from which derived. 

4. Respect in which similar to a verb. 

5. Respect in which similar to a noun. 

6. Principal parts of corresponding verb. 

7. Remarks. 

Example: 

He can d o little that can't do this. 

Tirst, more or less complete analysis. Then : 

Do is a word derived from a verb and partaking of 
the nature of a verb and of a noun. It is therefore 
an infinitive, according to the definition: An infinitive 
is a word, &c, &c. It is derived from the verb do. 
It is like a verb in that it may take an object (unless 
we consider little to be a noun, in which case do does 
take an object). It partakes of the nature of a noun 
in being the object of a verb, can. The correspond- 
ing perfect participle is done. The principal parts of 
the corresponding verb are do and did. 

IT Exercises in analysis and parsing can be varied in 
many ways. Some teachers may deem it necessary to sup- 
plement the exercises with more or less work of various 
kinds. Some may choose to abridge. It should be remem- 
bered that grammar is not the most important of studies, 
and in assigning work to pupils the teacher should consider 
time and the comparative importance of the subject. 



HELPS. 117 



VERB PHRASES. 



ON THE DISPOSITION OF JPHRASES. 

Tf I. In disposing of verb phrases containing, besides the 
verb, both participles and infinitives, there is seldom any difficul- 
ty in distinguishing the verb. Whenever there is any difficulty, 
it is generally occasioned by the participles and the infinitives. 
Therefore it has seemed best to introduce the discussion of this 
subject after the topics, Participles, and Infinitives. 



Example of a Recitation* 

m 
He must have been injured. 

Must have been injured is a verb phrase form- 
ing the predicate of the proposition. Injured is a 
perfect participle limiting lie, the subject, and is the 
attribute of the proposition. Must is a verb having 
no tense, no person, and no number. Have is an in- 
finitive, the object of must. Been is a perfect partici- 
ple joined with must hare to form a copula connect- 
ing the attribute injured with the subject. The words 
together form a phrase representing an act as certain- 
ly performed at some past time not specified. 

IT II. It will be noticed that hare was not said to take art 
object, though it is ordinarily transitive ; and that been, a 
perfect participle, was not called an attribute. To explain 
this, a long statement is necessary. The explanation is 
logical rather than grammatical : 



Il8 HELPS. 

Verb Phrases discussed. 



1 III. The expression, 

I will go, 

one of the examples given under the topic Infinitive (p. 
96), was said to mean, practically, I will the act of going. 
So 

I ought (to) go 

means practically I owe the act of going. In the first 
example will is a verb and go is an infinitive, object of will ; 
in the second, ought is a verb and go is an infinitive, object 
of ought. And in 

I shall go, 
I may go, 
I can go, 
m I must go, 

go is an infinitive, object respectively of shall, may, can, and 
must. 
Again in 

I shall be, 

I may he, 

I can be, 

I must be, 

be is an infinitive, and, like go in the preceding examples, it 
is the object of a verb in each instance. But these expres- 
sions sound incomplete. Let us add the word walking, so 
that the expressions shall read, 

I shall be walking, 
I may be walking, 
I can be walking, 
I must be walking. 

The word walking in each case limits the subject, I, and 
is an attribute. It is connected with the subject by shall 



HELPS. II9 

Verb Phrases discussed. 



be, may be, and so on, which are therefore copulas. Yet 
shall, may, can, and must are still verbs. And be is still 
an infinitive in each example, just as it was in the preceding 
examples; 

Again, let us substitute have for be in I shall be, 

forming 

I shall have. 

Have, like be, is an infinitive, and is the object of shall* 
I shall have, however, does not sound complete. We may 
add the book, saying, 

I shall have the book, 

have signifying possess. And if we wish to describe the 
condition of the book which is to be possessed we may add 
the word bound, saying, 

I shall have the book bound, 

have still meaning possess. As before, shall is a verb, and 
have is its object. But now have, also, has an object, book, 
which is limited by bound, a perfect participle. 

Furthermore, if we choose to put the perfect participle 
nearer to the verb phrase, we may by transposing obtain 

I shall have bound the book. 

By this transposition the meaning of the expression is 
greatly changed. Whereas before, the expression only in- 
dicated the time at which possession of the book was to be 
obtained, without reference to the time of the binding, it 
now declares particularly that the binding is to be com- 
pleted at some future time. Indeed, shall have bound is a 
perfect tense phrase. But in producing it, have has lost its 
meaning of possess, and no longer takes an object. It has 
lost individuality in becoming part of a phrase having a pe- 



120 HELPS. 

Verb Phrases discussed. 



culiar meaning. It cannot, therefore, be parsed as fully as 
when possessed of an individual force. Such is the case 
generally with words that go to make up phrases. This is 
shown further in 

they haye gone. 

Here, though a present tense, hare is joined with a per- 
fect participle to form a phrase representing an act per- 
formed during past time. And in 

they may have gone, 

the infinitive hare serves a similar purpose. If we divide 
these phrases, have gone and may have gone, and attempt 
to ascribe to each word the force it would have if used 
alone, we shall destroy the peculiar force of the phrase. The 
same is true of must have been injured in 

he must have been injured, 

the example used in the recitation introducing this topic ; 
also of such expressions as 

he was to have been made secretary, and 
the king having been dethroned, the prince was 
crowned. 

We may say, then, in general terms : Whenever several 
words, composing part of a proposition, are so intimately 
combined in a phrase as to lose individual force, the nicer 
analysis may be waived, and the words may be described as 
phrase members. This is true of adverb phrases and 
phrases of other kinds, as well as of verb phrases. 



HELPS. 



121 



LISTS OF WORDS 

FOR 

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR FORMS, &c. 



Remark. — These lists are not intended to be complete 
vocabularies of irregular words, but merely to furnish ma- 
terial for exercises on the more familiar words. 



Genders and Gender Equivalents. 

I. 



MASC. 


FEM. 


MASC. 


FEM. 


bachelor 


maid 


gentleman 


lady 




spinster 


hart 


roe 


beau 


belle 


he 


she 


boar 


sow 


horse 


mare 


boy 


girl 


husband 


wife 


bridegroom 


bride 


king 


queen 


brother 


sister 


lad 


lass 


buck 


doe 


lord 


lady 




ewe 


male 


female 


bull 


cow 


man 


woman 


bullock 


heifer 


master 


mistress 


colt 


filly 




miss 


drake 


duck 


Mr. 


Mrs. 


earl 


countess 


mister 


mistress 


father 


mother 


monk 


nun 


friar 


nun 


monsieur 


madame 


gander 


goose 




mademoiselle 



12 2 HELPS. 

Irregular words : Genders. 



MASC, 

nephew 

ox 

papa 

ram 

rooster 

sir 

sire (horse) 

son 



FEM. 

niece 

cow 

mamma 

ewe 

hen 

madam 

dam 

daughter 



MASC. 

stag 

steer 

swain 

uncle 

wizard 

youth 



FEM. 

hind 

heifer 

nymph 

aunt 

witch 

maiden 

damsel 



II. 



abbott 

administrator 

anchorite 

Augustus 

Cornelius 

czar 

don 

duke 

emperor 

executor 

Francis 

Frank 

goodman 

Henry 

hero 



abbess 

administratrix 

anchoress 

Augusta 

Cornelia 

czarina 

donna 

duchess 

empress 

executrix 

Frances 

Frances 

goody 

Henrietta 

heroine 



Infant 

Jesse 

John 

Joseph 

Julius 

landgrave 

marquis 

negro 

Paul 

signor 

sultan 

testator 

votary • 

widower 



Infanta 

Jessie 

Johanna 

Josephine 

Julia 

Juliet 

landgravine 

marchioness 

negress 

Pauline 

signora 

sultana 

testatrix 

votaress 

widow. 



archduke 

he-bear 

cock-sparrow 

he-goat 

grandfather 

landlord 



III. 

archduchess milkman 

she-bear peacock 

hen-sparrow buck-rabbit 

she-goat stepson 

grandmother stepfather 
landlady 



milkmaid 

peahen 

doe-rabbit 

stepdaughter 

stepmother 



HELPS. 123 

Irregular words: Plurals. 





IRREGULAR PLURALS, 


► 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1. 

SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


beef 


beeves 


mouse 


mice 


brother 


brothers 


ox 


oxen 




brethren 


pea 


peas 


calf 


calves 




pease 


child 


children 


penny 


pennies 


cow- 


cows 




pence 




kine 


self 


selves 


die 


dies 


she 


they 




dice 


sheaf 


sheaves 


elf 


elves 


shelf 


shelves 


foot 


feet 


sow 


sows 


genius 


geniuses 




swine 




genii 


staff 


staffs 


goose 


geese 




staves 


half 


halves 


that 


those 


he 


they 


thief 


thieves 


I 


we 


this 


these 


index 


indexes 


thou 


ye 




indices 




you 


it 


they 


tooth 


teeth 


knife 


knives 


wharf 


wharfs 


leaf 


leaves 




wharves 


life 


lives 


wife 


w r ives 


loaf 


loaves 


wolf 


wolves 


louse 
man 


lice 
men 


woman 


women 



II. 

FOREIGN WORDS. 
Words marked R. form also the regular English plural. 



analysis 


analyses 


axis 


axes 


alumna 


alumnae 


bandit, R. 


banditti 


alumnus 


alumni 


basis 


bases 



124 HELPS. 

Irregular words : Adjectives. 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


beau, R. 


beaux 


monsieur 


messieurs 


crisis 


crises 


Mr. 


Messrs. 


criterion, R. 


criteria 


nebula 


nebulae 


calyx, R. 


calyces. 


nucleus, R. 


nuclei 


cherub, R. 


cherubim 


oasis 


oases 


datum 


data 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


dilettante 


dilettanti 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


erratum 


errata 


radius, R. 


radii 


ellipsis 


ellipses 


rostrum, R. 


rostra 


focus, R. 


foci 


seraph, R. 


seraphim 


formula, R. 


formulae 


spectrum, R. 


spectra 


fungus, R. 


fungi 


stamen, R. 


stamina 


fulcrum, R. 


fulcra 


stimulus 


stimuli 


genus 


genera 


stratum, R. 


strata 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


synopsis 


synopses 


lamina 


laminae 


synthesis 


syntheses 


larva 


larvae 


terminus 


termini 


medium, R. 


media 


thesis 


theses 


memorandum,R. memoranda 


tumulus 


tumuli 


metamorphosis metamorphoses vertebra 


vertebrae 


minutia 


minutiae 


vertex, R. 


vertices 


madam 


mesdames 








IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 


POSITIVE. 


COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


bad 


worse 


worst 




evil 


worse 


worst 




far 


farther 


farthest 


fore 


former 


foremost 


good 


better 


best 




hind 


hinder 


hindmost 


ill 


worse 


Worst 




(in) 


inner 


innermost 
inmost 



POSITIVE. 

little 
late 



many 
much 
near 



(out) 



old 

(up) 
well 



HELPS. 125 

Irregular words : Adverbs. 



COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


less 


least 


lesser 




later 


latest 


latter 


last 


more 


most 


more 


most 


nearer 


nearest 




next 


outer 


outmost 


(utter) 


utmost 




uttermost 


older 


oldest 


elder 


eldest 


(upper) 


uppermost 


better 


best 



IRREGULAR ADVERBS. 



badly 


worse 


worst 


early 


earlier 


earliest 


far 


farther 


farthest 


forth 


further 


furthest 


little 


less 


least 


near 


nearer 


nearest 
next 


much 


more 


most 


well 


better 


best 


oft, often 


oftener 


oftenest 



126 



HELPS. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



It will be observed that in many cases either the past tense, 
or the perfect participle, or both have the regular form. The 
italicized forms are either obsolete or not so often used as the 
accompanying forms. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


be or am 


was 


been 


bear (bring forth) 


bore, bare 


born 


bear (carry) 


bore, bare 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


belay 


belaid, belayed 


belaid, belayed 


bend 


bent, bended 


bent, bended 


bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


bereave 


bereft 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blended, blent 


blended, blent 


bless 


blessed, blest 


blessed, blest 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built, builded 


built, builded 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 





HELPS. 


127 




PAST. 


Irregular Verbs. 


PRESENT. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid, chode 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave {adhere) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


cleave {split) 


clove, cleft, clave 


cleft, cloven 


climb 


climbed, clomb 


climbed 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow- 


crowed, crew 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare {venture) 


dared, durst 


dared 


deal 


dealt, dealed 


dealt, dealed 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


dress 


dressed, drest 


dressed, drest 


drink 


drank, drunk 


drunk, drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


eat 


ate, eat 


eaten, eat 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 



128 


HELPS. 




Irregular Verbs. 






PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get. 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


gird 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


give 


gave 


given 


g° 


went 


gone 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang (suspend) 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hoven 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held, holden 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leap 


leaped, leapt 


leaped, leapt 


learn 


learned, learnt 


learned, learnt 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 





HELPS. 


I29 




PAST. 


Irregular Verbs. 


PRESENT, 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow- 


mowed 


mowed, mown 


pass • 


passed, past 


passed, past - 


pay 


paid 


paid 


pen (enclose) 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


prove 


proved 


proved, proven 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quitted, quit 


rap 


rapped, rapt 


rapped, rapt 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, rived 


run 


ran, run 


run 


saw 


sawed 


sawed, sawn 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


seethe ® 


seethed, sod 


sodden, seethed 


sell 


sold 


sol* 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, shaved 


shear 


sheared, shore 


shorn, sheared 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 



6* 



130 


HELPS. 




Irregular Verbs. 


PAST. 




PRESENT. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE, 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show- 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay- 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


slink 


slunk, slank 


slunk 


slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted . 


smell 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sow- 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelt, spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spin 


spun, span 


spun 

spit ^* 


spit 


spit, spat 


split 


split 


split, splitted 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sprung . 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


staved, stove 


staved, stove 


stay- 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 





HELPS. 


131 




" PAST. 


Irregular Verbs, 


PRESENT. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE, 


stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strow, strew 


strowed, strewed 


strown, strewn 


swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, swelled 


swim 


swam, szuum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear . 


tore, tare 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


thrived, throve 


thrived, thriven 


throw 


' threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


waked, woke 


waked, woke 


wax 


waxed 


waxed, waxen 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


wed 


wedded, wed 


wedded, wed 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound, winded 


wound 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote, writ 


written 



INDEX 



■+++- 



The references are to pages. 

Abbreviate, 108 (V). 

abbreviated form of recitation : adjective, in ; noun, 108 ; 

subject, 81. 
abstract names, number, 38. 
action ; object of, 22 (c) ; subject of, 22 (c). 
adjective : def., 20 ; clause, 34. 
adjectival nature of participle, 27 (a), 
adjectives : 

abbreviated recitation, in. 

cases (?), 56 ; comparison, 57-8 ; compound, 56. 

exercises, 89-90. 

genders (?), 56. 

interrogative, 56 ; irregular, 124-5, 

numbers, 56-7 ; numeral, 56. 

parsing : abbrev., in ; example of, no ; order, no. 

persons (?), 56 ; pronominal, 56. 

recitation, no; remarks, 89. 
adverb : def., 23 ; clause, 34; remark on def., 91. 
abverbs: comparison, 66; compound, 66; conjunct., see letter a 

exercises, 91. 

parsing, order, 112. 

" rule," 66 (remark), 113-14 ; relative, 66. 
agreement : mean'g, 55 ; verb and subject, 61-3, 63 (b). 
analysis : meaning, 99 ; order of, 99-100. 
antecedent: mean'g, 55; agree't, 55. 
apposition : mean'g, 47 ; nouns, 47 ; pronouns, 54. 
attribute, def., 16. 

bare, complete, 16 ; exercises, 82 ; recitation, 83 (a), 
attributive object, 33 (d). 

[133] 



134 INDEX. 

Bare: subject, predicate, &c, 15 ; attribute, 16; copula, 16. 

Cases: def., 43 ; as opposed to other forms, 105-6 ; as opposed 
to relations, 46. 

nominative : nouns, 43 ; pronouns, 51. 

nouns, 42-48 ; pronouns, 51-3. 

objective, of pronouns, 51. 

possessive : nouns, 43 ; pronouns, 51 ; formation, 43-4. 

rules, see letter r. 
class membership: how determined, 18 (remark); 23-4; 27(par.ig); 

91 (c). 

classes of words: defined, 18-28; in forming compounds, 28; 
separately studied (chapter), 36-70 ; remarks, 105. 

classification of words, basis: 27 (par. 19), 18 (remark), 24 (d), 
01 (par. 14 c). 

clauses : mean'g, 30 (d); adject., 34; adverb, 34; noun, substan- 
tive, 33 (a); exercises, 102-3, 103-5. 

combined : words, 11 (b); subj. and pred. in prop., 17. 

collectives, 37 ; number of, 38. 

compare, to, 58 ; comparative form, 57. 

comparison : adjectives, 57-8, 124-5 5 adverbs, 66, 125. 

complement, 78 (3, c). 

complete: subject, predicate, 15 ; attribute, copula, 16. 

complex proposition: mean'g, 30 (c) ; analysis, 99 (par. 5); exer- 
cises, 102-3; recitation, 100. 

compound : adjectives, 56; adverbs, 66; verbs, 59. 
propositions : mean'g, 30 ; exercises, 101-2, 103. 
words, 28. 

condition: in def. of attribute, 15; indicated by attribute, 16(b), 82. 

conjunction, def., 26. 

conjunctions : disting. from prepositions, 26 (d), 92 (d) ; co- 
ordinating, 67; exercises, 92, 101-2; 103; remarks, 92; subor- 
dinating, 6j. 

conjunctive: adverbs, 26(c), 66; disting. from conjunctions, 

92 (d) ; exercises, 93, 102-3; pronouns, 49. 
connectives: copulas, 16; conjunctions, 26; conjunctive ad- 
verbs, 26 (c) ; conjunct, pronouns, 49 ; conjunctions, 26 ; prep- 
ositions, 25 ; phrases, 16 (c), 35. 

construct, to, def., 45. 
construction, see rules, letter r. 
co-ordinating conjunctions, 67. 

copula : def., 16 ; in def. of preposition, 25 ; in def. of verb, 21 ; 
phrase, 16 (c) ; exercises, 82 ; recitation, 83 (b). 



INDEX. 135 

Declarative proposition (clause), 29. 

deer*} not a number,. 38. 

degrees, disting. from forms, no. 

dependent proposition (clause), 29 (a). 

derived, in definition of participle, infinitive, 27. 

direct object, 32 (a) ; exercises, 100. 

Ellipsis, 34. 

else? exception to definition of adjective, 20(d). 

English grammar, def., 13. 

equivalents : gender, 42; phrases of comparison, 58(a,b); 66(a). 

etymology, 77. 

expletive, 32 (e) ; there, 32 (e). 

Feminine gender : def., 41 ; formation of (nouns), 41 (par. 49). 

first person : pronouns, 50; verbs, 59. 

foreign nouns : plurals of, 40 (par. 47); list, 123. 

formation of genders, numbers, tenses, &c, see letters g, n, t, &c. 

forms : in definition of grammar, 12-13 I disting. from degrees, 

no; from relations, 46; of nouns, pronouns, &c., see letters 

n, p, &c. 
future -tense phrase, 63. 
future-perfect-tense phrase, 65. 

Genders : def., 41 ; of nouns, 41-2 ; of pronouns, 51 ; equiva- 
lents, 42; feminine,, def., 41 ; formation of feminine, 41 (par. 
49) ; irregular genders and equivalents, 121-2 ; neuter of 
nouns, 42 ; neuter of pronouns, 51. 

grammar: def., 11-13 ; English grammar, def., 13; object of 
studying, 77 (g); remarks on definit, 77-8. 

grammatically independent, 48 (a) ; rule for nouns, 48. 

Helps, 70 + . 

hints, to teachers (unclassified): abbreviating recitations, 108 (IV), 
in (1) ; applying definitions and principles, 73-7, 80 (I), 
86 (II), 88 (a), 98 (remark); assigning lesson, 74 (IV). 
book as guide, 73 (I). 

cases : definition, disting. from other forms, 105-6. 
complement, 78. 
course of study, jy (remark), 
conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, 92. 



136 



INDEX, 



hints — continued, 

definition: of adjective, 89 (1); of adverb, 91; of attribute, 8a; 

of cases, 105-6 ; of conjunction, 92 ; of grammar, 77-8 ; of 

subject, 78 ; of the several classes, 95 (I), 
distinctions: degrees-forms, no; definition-description, 91; 

words-objects, 78 ; may be used — is used, 86 (top of p.). 
division of words into classes, 85 (I), 
formation of plurals, 105. 
habit of speaking correctly: the teacher's part in inculcating, 

95-8 ; in preface, 
infinitive, 95-8. 
learning by rote, 75. 
limiting words, 88, 89 (!), 91, 95 (^). 

new examples for recitations, 75 ; object of examples, 80 (T). 
nouns, 85-6, 105-8. 
parsing, 106, 107 (III), 108 (V). 

participles, 93 ; prepositions, 92 ; pronouns (properties), 108. 
plan of subjects studied, 76. 
preparation for class, 74 (IV). 
progress, 7 6, 86 (IV), 87 (I), 
reasons for conclusions, 75 ; omitted, 108. 
recitations and study, 74-6 ; on definitions, 85 (a), 
relations, 77; as basis of classification, 91. 
reviewing, 75-6. 

h rules" for adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, 1 13-14. 
selections from authors for recitations, 75. 
study of nouns, 85-6 ; of pronouns, 86-7. 
teacher a guide, 73 (I). 
test of knowledge of principles, &c, 75. 
using the book, 10, 72 ; illustrations, 73 (II), 79. 
verb phrases, 112 (f ), 117-20. 
who should study grammar (?), 76. 

Ideas, words express, 11 (a). 

imperative propositions, 29. 

independent: grammatically, 48 (a); proposition, 30 (b, 1). 

indirect object, 32 (a); examples, 100. 

infinitive, def., 27. 

infinitives: disting. from participles, 95 (If I); from nouns, 96 
(T II) ; direct, and indirect object of, 32 (b), 100 ; exercises, 96, 
97 ; in -ing, 70 ; as object of verb, 96 ; parsing, order, ex- 
ample of, 116 ; recitation on definition, 98 ; root, 70 ; as subject 
of proposition, 32 (c). 

-nig: infinitive in, 70; participle in, 68 (b). 

interjection, meaning, 28. 



INDEX. 137 

interrogative: adjectives, 49, 56; pronouns, 49; propositions, 29. 

intransitive verbs, 23 (f). 

irregular: adjectives, 124-5; adverbs, 125; genders, 121-2; past 
tenses, 60, 126-31 ; perf. participles, 69, 126-31 ; plurals, 38, 
39-40, (lists) 123-4, (foreign) 123 ; verbs, 60, (lists) 126-31 ; words, 
remark, 105, (lists) 121-31. 

it, impersonal, 32 (d). 

Language lessons, preface; 74 (^f III). 

language, study of, 77. 

less, least, 58. 

limit or restrict, to: def., 20; exercises on limiting words, reci- 
tation, remarks, 88, 89 ; in def. of adjective, 20 (c, d) ; phrases 
20(f). 

lists, of irregular words, 121-31 (see under irregular). 

^Masculine gender, def., 41; of nouns, 41; of pronouns, 51. 
may be used, disting. from is used, 19 (e), 20 (e), 23 (c), 86, 89 

(U 9* (c, 1). 
moods (?), 65. 
more, most, in adjective phrases, 58 (a, b) ; in adverb 

phrases, 66. 

Name: in def. of noun, 19; noun as name of itself, 19 (e); noun 

as name of abstract objects, 38 (par. 40). 
neuter gender: nouns (?), 42 ; pronouns, 51. 

nominative case: nouns: — 43 (c); of subject, attribute, object, 45; 
object of preposition, participle, infinitive, 46 (a) ; in indepen- 
dent relation, 48 ; pronouns: — 51 (a) ; as subj., attrib., object, 
52-3- 
noun: def., 19; in def. of adjective, 20; of adverb, 23; of infini- 
tive, 27 ; clause, 33 (a) ; as name, 19 (d) ; as name of itself, 
19 (e), 40 (par. 46) ; as name of abstract object, 38 (par. 40). 
nouns: chapter, 36-48; cases, genders, numbers, rules, see let- 
ters c, g, n, r. 
appositive, 47 ; attribute, 45, 82. 
common, proper, compound, collective, 36-7. 
obj. of infinitive, preposition, participle, verb, 45-6. 
possessive of, 43-4, 47. 

parsing: order, example of, 107 ; abbreviated, 108 ; remarks, 108. 
recitation on the definition, 85 ; remarks, 85, 86 
as substantive, 33 (a). 



I38 INDEX, 

numbers: def., 37; adj., 57 (c); nouns, 37-4°; pronouns, 50; 
verbs, 59. 
singular, plural (meaning), 37 (c). 

plurals : formation of, 38-40 ; irregular (meaning), 38 (a) ; forma- 
tion of, 39-40; lists of irregular, 123-4 ; spoken, written, 38-9. 
numeral adjectives, 56. 

Object : of action, 22 (c) ; attributive, 33 ^d) ; direct and in- 
direct, 32 (a) — examples, 100 ; of infinitive, 46 (a), 96; of partici- 
ple, 46 (a) ; of preposition, 25, 46 (a); of a verb, 22 (c, d, e, f)— 
not an adverb, 23 (a, b). 

objective case, 51. 

orthography, 77. 

orthoepy, 77. 

Parse, to, meaning, 106. 
parsing, order, example of: 

abbreviated, 108, 109 ; adjectives, no — abbrev. form, in ; adverbs 
(order only), 112. 

conjunctions (order, not example of), 113. 

infinitives, 116. 

nouns, 107; abbrev., 108. 

participles, 114 ; prepositions (order only), 113 ; pronouns, 109. 

verbs, m-112. 
participle, def., 27 ; recitation on def., 94. 

participles: direct, and indirect object, 32 (b) ; disting. from ad- 
jectives, 93, 95 (1) ; from infinitives, 95 (T 1). 

exercises, 94. 

forms, 68 ; formation of perf. part., 69. 

imperfect, 68 (a, b). 

in phrases, 117-20. 

parsing, order, example of, 1 14-15. 

parts, principal, of verbs, 69 (a). 

past-perfect-tense phrase, 64. 

past tense : meaning, 60 ; format, of, 60-1 ; irregular, 60, (lists) 
126-31. 

perfect participle, 68 ; formation of, 69. 

personal pronouns, 49. 

persons: def., 50; of pronouns, 50; of verbs, 59 (a, b). 

phrase, def., 34-5. 

phrases: exercises, 101-3, 103-5 ; fut. -perf. -tense phr., 65; fut- 
tense phr., 63 ; present-perfect-tense phr., 64; past-p erf. -tense 
phr., 64 ; of comparison, 58 ; verb phrases, discussed, 117-20. 



INDEX. 1 39 

plan, 7-8. 

pluperfect-tense phrase, 64. 

plural number, see (index) under numbers. 

plurals, irregular, lists, 123-4. 

positive form, 57. 

possessive case, def., 43 ; see also (index) under cases. 

possessive nouns in apposition, 47 (c, 2d). 

predicate: def., 15 ; bare, and complete, 15 (c) ; exercises, 81 ; 

in def. of verb, 21 ; with two or more subjects, 31 (b). 
preposition: def., 25 ; object of, 25 (c); remarks on definit., 92. 
prepositions: compared with conjunctions, 26(d); parsing, order, 

113 ; " rule," 113-14. 
present participle, 68 (a, b). 
present-perfect-tense phrase, 64. 

principal: parts of verbs, 69 (a) ; propositions, 29 (a). 
pronominal adjectives, 56. 
pronoun, def., 19. 
pronouns : cases, genders, numbers, persons, 50-1. 

conjunctive, interrog., relative, personal, 49. 

impersonal, 32 (d). 

parsing, order, example of, 109. 

properties (remarks), 108. 

rules, see (index) under rules, 
proper nouns, 37. 
proposition: def., 17; chapter on definition, 14-17; compared 

with sentence, 31 (e) ; exercises on the def., 83-4. 
propositions : analysis of, order, 99 ; chapter on kinds, 29-35 ; 
connected by conjunctions, 26 (a, b, c, d), 67. 

clauses, see (index) clauses. 

compound, complex, simple, 30. 

declarative, imperative, interrogative, principal, subordinate, 29. 

dependent, independent, 29, 30. 

exercises, 101-2-3-4-5 ; recitation on disting'g, propositions, too. 

uses, as clauses, 33-4. 

Quality: in def. of attribute, 16 ; degrees of (comparison), 56. 

Recitations : attribute, 83 (a); copula, 83 (b) ; subject, 80-1. 
analysis: of proposition, 100; verb phrases, 117. 
definition: of noun, 85; pronoun, 86; limit, to, 88 ; participle, 94; 
infinitive, 98. 



I40 INDEX. 

recitations — continued. 

in parsing: nouns, 107— abbrev,, 108 ; pronouns, 109; adjectives, 
no— abbrev., in; verbs,ii2; participles, 115; infinitives,n6. 
regular: plurals, 38 ; perf. participles, 69 ; verbs, 60. 
related words, 11 (a, c). 
relation : of words, def., 12 (e); II— 12; state of, 11 (d); disting. 

from case, 46; words in different relations, 12 (a, b). 
relations, as basis of classification, 27 (par. 19), 91 (c), 92 (Tf), 93, 
95(18 a, I), 
independent of grammatical relations, 28. 
relative pronouns, 49. 
restrict, see (index) under limit, 
rhetoric, 77. 
root infinitive, *]Q>. 
rule, meaning, 113, 114 (^[) 

rules : adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, (?), 1 13-14. 
construction : nouns : 

subject, attribute, object of verb, 45. 
object of preposition, part., infin., 46 (a). 
possessive, apposition, 47. 
four rules, 48. 

grammatically independent, 48. 
construction : pronouns : 

subj , attrib., obj. of verb, prep., part., inf., 53. 
possessive, apposition, 54. 
agreement with antecedent, 55. 
construction : verbs : agree't with subj., 61 (b, 2d) ; in 3d 
person, singular, 63 (b). 

Sentence, mean, of, 31 (e). 

sheep* not a number, 38, 

sign of infinitive, to, 96 (III). 

simple proposition, 30 (a). 

singular number, see (index) under numbers. 

spelling, not basis of classification, 18 (remark), 24 (d). 

subject : def., 14; agreement, 61 (b,2d), 63 (b); bare, complete, 15; 

of action, 22 (c) ; composed of several words, 14 (i>), 31 (b); 

disting. from logical subject, 78 (3, a) ; exercises, recitation, 

79-80; impersonal, 32 (d) ; as noun, 18 (b) ; as infinitive, 95 (a); 

used to designate bare subject, 15 (e). 
subjective relation, 46 (remark), 
subordinate: proposition, 29 (a) ; conjunctions, 67. 



INDEX. 141 

substance, disting. from word, 14 (a). 

substantive: clauses, 33 (a) ; nature of infinitive, 27 (a, 2d). 

suggestions, to the teacher, 73-6. 

superlative form, 57. 

Teacher to: hints, see (index) under hints; general suggestions, 

73-6. 
tense: present, past, 60; phrases, see (index) under phrases, 
tenses: meaning, 60 (a); of verbs, 60 (b). 
there, expletive, 32 (e). 
to j sign of infinitive, 96 (III). 
u to Ibe," forms, 62, 
transitive verbs, 23 (f). 

Understood, meaning of, 17. 

Verb: def., 21; direct and indirect object of, 32, b; not group of 
words, 21 (remark) ; remark on definition, 90. 

verbs: exercises (remark), 90 (^f); irregular, meaning, 60 (90 a), 
lists, 126-31 ; number, persons, 59 ; phrases, see (index) under 
phrases ; parsing, order, example, 111-12 ; tenses, 60-3 ; rule r 
agree' t, see (index) under rules. 

verbal nature of participles, infinitives, 27. 

Words: disting. from substance, 14 (a); from group of words,, 
21 (remark) ; as name of itself, 19 (e), 40 (par. 46). 

words: basis of classification, 27 (par. 19); classes of def., 18-28^ 
combined, n (b) ; compound, 28 ; different forms, 12; in differ- 
ent relations, 12 ; on the parsing of, 106 ; related, n (b) ; spell- 
ing not basis of classification, 18 (remark). 



mam 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 243 593 2 




Jm 



mm 



W$m 



